Filibuster War
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The Filibuster War, otherwise referred to as the Walker affair, or The National Campaign of 1856 and 1857 in
Costa Rica Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica, is a country in Central America. It borders Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the northeast, Panama to the southeast, and the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, as well as Maritime bo ...
, was a military conflict between
filibuster A filibuster is a political procedure in which one or more members of a legislative body prolong debate on proposed legislation so as to delay or entirely prevent a decision. It is sometimes referred to as "talking a bill to death" or "talking ...
ing multinational troops stationed in
Nicaragua Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the geographically largest Sovereign state, country in Central America, comprising . With a population of 7,142,529 as of 2024, it is the third-most populous country in Central America aft ...
and a coalition of Central American armies. An American mercenary, William Walker, and his small private army were invited to
Nicaragua Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the geographically largest Sovereign state, country in Central America, comprising . With a population of 7,142,529 as of 2024, it is the third-most populous country in Central America aft ...
in 1855. He seized control of the country by 1856, but was ousted the following year.


Background

Nicaragua's independence from Spain, Mexico, and then from the
United Provinces of Central America The Federal Republic of Central America (), initially known as the United Provinces of Central America (), was a sovereign state in Central America that existed between 1823 and 1839/1841. The republic was composed of five states (Costa Rica ...
in 1838 did not free it from foreign interference. The 1850s
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created interest in the United States in finding a quicker route between the American east and west coasts. However, Great Britain had long been present on the coast of Nicaragua, which created tension between the two countries. The Clayton–Bulwer Treaty was signed in 1850, in which both sides "agreed that neither would claim exclusive power over a future
canal Canals or artificial waterways are waterways or engineered channels built for drainage management (e.g. flood control and irrigation) or for conveyancing water transport vehicles (e.g. water taxi). They carry free, calm surface ...
in Central America nor gain exclusive control over any part of the region." Many Nicaraguans originally welcomed this treaty because of the potential financial benefits a canal could bring. Following Nicaraguan independence from Spain, a conflict over power developed between the liberal party, based in León, and the conservative party, based in
Granada Granada ( ; ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada (Spain), Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence ...
.


Initial stages

In 1854, a
civil war A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...
erupted in Nicaragua between the Legitimist Party (also called the 'Conservative party'), and the Democratic Party (also called the 'Liberal party'). The liberal elite of León was losing the struggle to unseat the
conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civiliza ...
elite of
Granada Granada ( ; ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada (Spain), Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence ...
and turned for help to a San Francisco-based soldier of fortune named William Walker. Walker was known as an adventurer who sought to take control of Latin American countries with the purpose of making them a part of the United States. To circumvent American neutrality laws, Walker obtained a contract from Democratic president Francisco Castellón to bring as many as three hundred "colonists" to Nicaragua. Walker sailed from San Francisco on 3 May 1855, with approximately 60 men. Upon landing, the force was reinforced by 170 locals and about 100 Americans.


Establishment of Walker

With Castellón's consent, Walker attacked the Legitimists in the town of Rivas, near the trans-isthmian route. He was driven off, but not without inflicting heavy casualties. On 4 September, during the Battle of La Virgen, Walker defeated the Legitimist army. On 13 October, he conquered the Legitimist capital of
Granada Granada ( ; ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada (Spain), Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence ...
and took effective control of the country. Initially, as commander of the army, Walker ruled Nicaragua through
puppet A puppet is an object, often resembling a human, animal or Legendary creature, mythical figure, that is animated or manipulated by a person called a puppeteer. Puppetry is an ancient form of theatre which dates back to the 5th century BC in anci ...
President Patricio Rivas. U.S. President
Franklin Pierce Franklin Pierce (November 23, 1804October 8, 1869) was the 14th president of the United States, serving from 1853 to 1857. A northern Democratic Party (United States), Democrat who believed that the Abolitionism in the United States, abolitio ...
recognized Walker's regime as the legitimate government of Nicaragua on 20 May 1856. Walker declared himself president, re-instituted
slavery Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
, and made English the official language. File:WilliamWalker.jpg, William Walker, the self-proclaimed American president of
Nicaragua Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the geographically largest Sovereign state, country in Central America, comprising . With a population of 7,142,529 as of 2024, it is the third-most populous country in Central America aft ...
, who conquered the Nicaraguans and occupied their country from 1855 to 1857 File:Walker Nicaragua map.JPG, Map of William Walker's theater of operations in Nicaragua File:Residence of Gen. William Walker, Granda cph.3a00914.jpg, President Walker's house in
Granada, Nicaragua Granada () is a city in western Nicaragua and the capital of the Granada Department. With an estimated population of 105,862 (2022), it is Nicaragua's ninth most populous city. Granada is historically one of Nicaragua's most important cities, econ ...
. On 12 October 1856, during the siege of Granada, Guatemalan officer José Víctor Zavala ran under heavy fire to capture the Walker flag and bring it back to the Central American coalition army trenches shouting "Filibuster bullets don't kill!" Zavala survived this adventure unscathed. File:Flag_of_Nicaragua_under_William_Walker_(1856-1857).svg, Walker's flag of filibuster-occupied Nicaragua File:La Pedrada de Andres Castro.jpg, ''Representation of La Pedrada'', scene of Andrés Castro overthrowing American
filibuster A filibuster is a political procedure in which one or more members of a legislative body prolong debate on proposed legislation so as to delay or entirely prevent a decision. It is sometimes referred to as "talking a bill to death" or "talking ...
invaders in the
Battle of San Jacinto The Battle of San Jacinto (), fought on April 21, 1836, in present-day La Porte and Deer Park, Texas, was the final and decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. Led by General Samuel Houston, the Texan Army engaged and defeated General A ...
during the War of 1856 in
Nicaragua Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the geographically largest Sovereign state, country in Central America, comprising . With a population of 7,142,529 as of 2024, it is the third-most populous country in Central America aft ...
. Oil on canvas painting by the
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an painter, Luis Vergara Ahumada.


Central American counterattack

Walker had scared his neighbors with talk of further military conquests in Central America. Juan Rafael Mora, President of Costa Rica, rejected Walker's diplomatic overtures and instead declared war on his regime. Walker sent Colonel Schlessinger to invade Costa Rica in a preemptive action, but his forces were defeated at the Battle of Santa Rosa in March 1856. In April 1856, Costa Rican troops penetrated into Nicaraguan territory and inflicted a defeat on Walker's men at the Second Battle of Rivas, in which Juan Santamaría, later to be recognized as one of Costa Rica's national heroes, sacrificed himself to burn down the place where the Filibusters were staying. Walker set himself up as President of Nicaragua, after conducting an uncontested election. He was inaugurated on 12 July 1856, and soon launched an Americanization program, reinstating slavery, declaring English an official language and reorganizing currency and fiscal policy to encourage immigration from the United States of America. Meanwhile, government representatives from Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala signed in the City of Guatemala a Treaty of Alliance on 18 July 1856, for "defense of its sovereignty and independence" also recognized Patricio Rivas as president of Nicaragua. Costa Rica could not attend at that time to the alliance because of the havoc that cholera disease had caused in their troops, but would resume actions later. Also, democratic and loyalist factions allied to Patricio Rivas, signed on 12 September, a "Providential Pact" declaring war against William Walker. On 14 September, Septentrión Army (as the allied army was called) forces managed the first victory of the patriotic Nicaraguans in the so-called
Battle of San Jacinto The Battle of San Jacinto (), fought on April 21, 1836, in present-day La Porte and Deer Park, Texas, was the final and decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. Led by General Samuel Houston, the Texan Army engaged and defeated General A ...
. By the end of 1856, Walker ordered the destruction of Granada. The Costa Rican government resumed action in late 1856, and developed plans to take over the San Juan River in order to cut Walker's supply of weapons and new recruits.
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sent one of his agents, Sylvanus Spencer, to collaborate with the Costa Rican army in order to recover the possession of the Transit Company he had lost to Walker. Spencer arrived to San Jose in November 1856 and was assigned to a company under Major Maximo Blanco to take over the steamers of the Transit Company. By January 1857, the Costa Rican army was in control of the San Juan River and all the steamers of the Transit Company. Meanwhile, Walker was expelled from Granada by the rest of the allied armies. Some reinforcements under the command of Lockridge and Titus tried to recover the control of the River from the Costa Ricans, unsuccessfully. By April 1857, Walker had taken Rivas again, and the allies had laid siege to the city, in what became known as the Third Battle of Rivas.


Walker's surrender

Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Honduras, and other Central American countries united to drive Walker out in 1857. During this time, Granada was burned and thousands of Central Americans lost their lives. The final battle of what Nicaraguans called the "National War" (1856–1857) took place in the spring of 1857 in the town of Rivas, Nicaragua. Walker beat off the attacks, but the effort diminished the strength and morale of his forces and he soon succumbed. The National War made for the cooperation between the Liberal and Conservative parties, which had brought Walker to Nicaragua. On 1 May 1857, Walker surrendered to Commander
Charles Henry Davis Charles Henry Davis ( – ) was a Autodidacticism, self-educated American astronomer and Rear admiral (United States), rear admiral of the United States Navy. While working for the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, United States Coast ...
of the
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and was repatriated. Upon disembarking in New York City, he was greeted as a hero, but he alienated public opinion when he blamed his defeat on the U.S. Navy. Walker attempted to return to campaign in the region in 1860, but he was arrested by the
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when he disembarked at Trujillo, Honduras, tried for piracy by a Honduran military court, and executed.


Chronology

;1855 * ''29 June:'' First Battle of Rivas, Nicaraguan troops of the ''legitimista'' band are victorious over Walker. * ''18 August'': Battle of El Sauce, General José Trinidad Muñoz is killed, ending 18 years of ''de facto'' military rule in Nicaragua * ''30 August:'' Filibuster troops take the port of San Juan del Sur. The action by the teacher, Enmanuel Mongalo y Rubio, stands out. * ''3 September:'' Battle of La Virgen, Walker defeats Jose Santos Guardiola's troops. * ''13 October:'' Filibusters capture of the city of
Granada Granada ( ; ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada (Spain), Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence ...
with help from Nicaraguan troops of the ''democratico'' band. ;1856 * ''20 March:'' Battle of Santa Rosa in Costa Rican territory. * ''11 April:'' Second Battle of Rivas: Costa Rican troops repel the attack. The soldier, Juan Santamaría, stands out. * ''26 April:'' Costa Rican troops leave Nicaragua, decimated by
cholera Cholera () is an infection of the small intestine by some Strain (biology), strains of the Bacteria, bacterium ''Vibrio cholerae''. Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe. The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea last ...
. * ''14 September:'' Victory of Nicaraguan patriots against the filibusters in the
Battle of San Jacinto The Battle of San Jacinto (), fought on April 21, 1836, in present-day La Porte and Deer Park, Texas, was the final and decisive battle of the Texas Revolution. Led by General Samuel Houston, the Texan Army engaged and defeated General A ...
. * ''22 September:'' William Walker decrees the legalization of slavery in the country. * ''7 November:'' Costa Rican troops, under the command of José María Cañas, occupy San Juan del Sur. * ''11 to 13 October:'' First Battle of Masaya: The Allied Central American Army repels the filibuster troops. * ''11 November:'' Battle of the Transit: William Walker's troops defeat José María Cañas. * ''15 to 17 November:'' Second Battle of Masaya, the Central American allies reject William Walker's troops. * ''23 November:'' schooner ''Granada'' vs. brig ''Once de Abril''. (See Action of 23 November 1856.) * ''24 November to 14 December:'' destruction of Granada. * ''16 December:'' Walker occupies the city of Rivas. ** ''December:'' Costa Rican troops began a series of attacks that take river steamers in San Juan del Norte and the river San Juan, as well as the fortresses of El Castillo and San Carlos. ;1857 * ''3 January:'' Costa Rican troops take the steamer "San Carlos", isolating William Walker's government from the Atlantic Ocean. * ''28 January:'' Allied troops occupy the lake port of San Jorge. * ''5 March:'' Nicaraguan and Central American troops under the command of Fernando Chamorro Alfaro and
Florencio Xatruch Florencio Xatruch (October 21, 1811 – February 15, 1893) was a general who led the Honduran expeditionary force against William Walker in Nicaragua in 1856. Life Florencio Xatruch was born in San Antonio de Oriente, Honduras. His fathe ...
, respectively, defeat the filibusters in the Battle of El Jocote. * ''23 March:'' Third Battle of Rivas, Central American allies attack the town without results. * ''11 April:'' Fourth Battle of Rivas, Central American allies, again, attack the town without results. * ''17 April:'' Central American Allied troops occupy San Juan del Sur. * ''1 May:'' William Walker surrenders to U.S. Captain Charles H. Davis. * ''5 May:'' William Walker abandons Nicaragua in the sloop ''St. Mary's''.


Notes


References


Works cited

*


External links


Map of North America and the Caribbean showing the Filibuster War at omniatlas.com
{{Authority control Conflicts in 1856 Conflicts in 1857 Filibuster Military history of Costa Rica 1856 in Costa Rica 1857 in Costa Rica 19th century in Nicaragua Wars involving Costa Rica Wars involving El Salvador Wars involving Guatemala Wars involving Honduras Wars involving Nicaragua Civil wars involving the states and peoples of North America Nicaragua–United States relations Presidency of Franklin Pierce