Eduard Bernstein (; 6 January 1850 – 18 December 1932) was a German Marxist theorist and politician. A prominent member of the

Social Democratic Party of Germany The Social Democratic Party of Germany ( , SPD ) is a social democratic political party in Germany. It is one of the major parties of contemporary Germany. Saskia Esken has been the party's leader since the 2019 leadership election together w ...

(SPD), he has been both condemned and praised as a " revisionist" who challenged major aspects of

Karl Marx Karl Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, political theorist, economist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. He is best-known for the 1848 pamphlet '' The Communist Manifesto'' (written with Friedrich Engels) ...

's thought. A key influence on the European

social democratic Social democracy is a Social philosophy, social, Economic ideology, economic, and political philosophy within socialism that supports Democracy, political and economic democracy and a gradualist, reformist, and democratic approach toward achi ...

movement, Bernstein argued for

reformism Reformism is a political tendency advocating the reform of an existing system or institution – often a political or religious establishment – as opposed to its abolition and replacement via revolution. Within the socialist movement, ref ...

over revolutionary action, and for a gradual democratization to achieve socialism. Bernstein joined the Social Democratic Workers Party in 1872, which was merged into the SPD in 1875. He lived in exile in Switzerland and later London from 1878 to 1901, and in 1880 met Marx and Engels, who impressed him with their thought. With Karl Kautsky, Bernstein was one of the drafters of the party's

Erfurt Program The Erfurt Program was adopted by the Social Democratic Party of Germany during the SPD Congress at Erfurt in 1891. Drafted by theorists Karl Kautsky and Eduard Bernstein, the program set out a Marxist view and superseded the party's Gotha P ...

of 1891. In his 1899 book ''Evolutionary Socialism'', Bernstein argued that socialism would be achieved through accumulated reforms and improvements of capitalism, rejecting the

dialectical Dialectic (; ), also known as the dialectical method, refers originally to dialogue between people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to arrive at the truth through reasoned argument. Dialectic resembles debate, but the c ...

and revolutionary elements of Marxism. He was a member of the Imperial Reichstag from 1901 to 1907, and again from 1912 to 1918. After

World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

, during which he joined the anti-war

Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany The Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (, USPD) was a short-lived political party in Germany during the German Empire and the Weimar Republic. The organization was established in 1917 as the result of a split of anti-war members of t ...

(USPD), he was again a member of the Reichstag from 1920 to 1928.

Early life

Bernstein was born in Berlin-Kreuzberg to

Jewish Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...

parents who were active in the Reform Temple on the Johannistrasse whose services were performed on Sunday. His father was a locomotive driver. From 1866 to 1878, he was employed in banks as a banker's clerk after leaving school. Bernstein's political career began in 1872, when he joined a

socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...

party with

Marxist Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflic ...

tendencies, known formally as the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany. The party was a proponent of the Eisenacher style of German socialism, named after the German town where it was founded. Bernstein soon became known as an activist. His party contested two elections against a rival socialist party, the Lassalleans ( Ferdinand Lassalle's General German Workers' Association), but in both elections neither party was able to win a significant majority of the left-wing vote. Consequently, Bernstein, together with

August Bebel Ferdinand August Bebel (; 22 February 1840 – 13 August 1913) was a German socialist activist and politician. He was one of the principal founders of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). Bebel, a woodworker by trade, co-founded the Sa ...

and Wilhelm Liebknecht, prepared the ''Einigungsparteitag'' ("Unification Party Congress") with the Lassalleans in

Gotha Gotha () is the fifth-largest city in Thuringia, Germany, west of Erfurt and east of Eisenach with a population of 44,000. The city is the capital of the district of Gotha and was also a residence of the Ernestine Wettins from 1640 until the ...

in 1875.

's famous '' Critique of the Gotha Program'' criticized what he saw as a Lassallean victory over the Eisenachers, whom he favoured. Bernstein later noted that it was Liebknecht, considered by many to be the strongest Marxist advocate within the Eisenacher faction, who proposed the inclusion of many of the ideas that so thoroughly irritated Marx. In the 1877 elections, the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) gained 493,000 votes. However, two assassination attempts on Kaiser Wilhelm I the next year provided Chancellor

Otto von Bismarck Otto, Prince of Bismarck, Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen, Duke of Lauenburg (; born ''Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck''; 1 April 1815 – 30 July 1898) was a German statesman and diplomat who oversaw the unification of Germany and served as ...

a pretext to introduce a law banning all socialist organizations, assemblies and publications. There had been no Social Democratic involvement in either assassination attempt, but the popular reaction against "enemies of the Reich" induced a compliant Reichstag to approve Bismarck's Anti-Socialist Laws.''The Preconditions of Socialism'' Eduard Bernstein Bismarck's strict anti-socialist legislation was passed on 12 October 1878. For nearly all practical purposes the SPD was outlawed, and it was actively suppressed throughout Germany. However, it was still possible for Social Democrats to campaign as individuals for election to the Reichstag, which they did in spite of severe persecution. The party actually increased its electoral success, gaining 550,000 votes in 1884 and 763,000 in 1887.

Exile

The vehemence of Bernstein's opposition to the government of Bismarck made it desirable for him to leave Germany. Shortly before the Anti-Socialist Laws came into effect, Bernstein went into exile in Zurich, accepting a position as the private secretary of Karl Höchberg, a wealthy supporter of

social democracy Social democracy is a Social philosophy, social, Economic ideology, economic, and political philosophy within socialism that supports Democracy, political and economic democracy and a gradualist, reformist, and democratic approach toward achi ...

. A warrant subsequently issued for his arrest ruled out any possibility for him to return to Germany, and he was to remain in exile for more than 20 years. In 1888, Bismarck convinced the Swiss government to expel a number of important members of German social democracy and so Bernstein relocated to London, where he associated with

Friedrich Engels Friedrich Engels ( ;"Engels"
''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''.Karl Kautsky. It was soon after his arrival in Switzerland that he began to think of himself as a Marxist. In 1880, he accompanied Bebel to London to clear up a misunderstanding concerning his involvement with an article published by Höchberg that was denounced by Marx and Engels as being "chock-full of

bourgeois The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and Aristocracy (class), aristocracy. They are tradition ...

and petty bourgeois ideas". The visit was a success, and Engels in particular was impressed by Bernstein's zeal and ideas. The revisionist Edward Bernstein

Back in Zurich, Bernstein became increasingly active in working for '' Der Sozialdemokrat'' (''Social Democrat'') and later succeeded Georg von Vollmar as the paper's editor, which he was for 10 years. It was during those years between 1880 and 1890 that Bernstein established his reputation as a major party theoretician and a Marxist of impeccable

orthodoxy Orthodoxy () is adherence to a purported "correct" or otherwise mainstream- or classically-accepted creed, especially in religion. Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical co ...

. He was helped in that by the close personal and professional relationship he established with Engels. The relationship owed much to the fact that he shared Engels's strategic vision and accepted most of the particular policies that Engels believed the ideas to entail. In 1887, the German government persuaded the Swiss authorities to ban ''Der Sozialdemokrat''. Bernstein moved to London, where he resumed publication from premises in

Kentish Town Kentish Town is an area of northwest London, England, in the London Borough of Camden, immediately north of Camden Town, close to Hampstead Heath. Kentish Town likely derives its name from Ken-ditch or Caen-ditch, meaning the "bed of a waterw ...

. His relationship with Engels soon developed into friendship. He also communicated with various English socialist organizations, notably the

Fabian Society The Fabian Society () is a History of the socialist movement in the United Kingdom, British socialist organisation whose purpose is to advance the principles of social democracy and democratic socialism via gradualist and reformist effort in ...

and Henry Mayers Hyndman's Social Democratic Federation. In later years, his opponents routinely claimed that his " revisionism" was caused by seeing the world "through English spectacles". However, Bernstein denied the charges. In 1895, Engels was deeply distressed when he discovered that his introduction to a new edition of ''The Class Struggles in France'', written by Marx in 1850, had been edited by Bernstein and Kautsky in a manner that left the impression that he had become a proponent of a peaceful road to socialism. On 1 April 1895, four months before his death, Engels wrote to Kautsky:

I was amazed to see today in the ''Vorwärts'' an excerpt from my 'Introduction' that had been ''printed without my knowledge'' and tricked out in such a way as to present me as a peace-loving proponent of legality ''quand même'' (at all costs). Which is all the more reason why I should like it to appear in its entirety in the ''Neue Zeit'' in order that this disgraceful impression may be erased. I shall leave Liebknecht in no doubt as to what I think about it and the same applies to those who, irrespective of who they may be, gave him this opportunity of perverting my views and, what's more, without so much as a word to me about it.

In 1891, Bernstein was one of the authors of the

and from 1896 to 1898, he published a series of articles entitled ''Probleme des Sozialismus'' (''Problems of Socialism'') that resulted in the revisionism debate in the SPD. He also published the book ''Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie'' (''The Prerequisites for Socialism and the Tasks of Social Democracy'', also translated in English as ''Evolutionary Socialism'') in 1899. The book was in great contrast to the positions of Bebel, Kautsky and Liebknecht.

Rosa Luxemburg Rosa Luxemburg ( ; ; ; born Rozalia Luksenburg; 5 March 1871 – 15 January 1919) was a Polish and naturalised-German revolutionary and Marxist theorist. She was a key figure of the socialist movements in Poland and Germany in the early 20t ...

's 1900 essay '' Reform or Revolution?'' was also a polemic against Bernstein's position. In 1900, Bernstein published ''Zur Geschichte und Theorie des Sozialismus'' (''The History and Theory of Socialism'').

Return to Germany

In 1901, Bernstein returned to Germany after the end of the ban that had kept him from entering the country. He became an editor of the newspaper '' Vorwärts'' that year and a member of the Reichstag from 1902 to 1918. He voted against the armament tabling in 1913, together with the SPD fraction's left wing. Although he voted for war credits in August 1914, he opposed

from July 1915 and, in 1917, was among the founders of the

(USPD), which united antiwar socialists, including

reformists Reformism is a political tendency advocating the reform of an existing system or institution – often a political establishment , political or religion , religious establishment – as opposed to its abolition and replacement via revolution. ...

like Bernstein, centrists like Kautsky and revolutionary socialists like

and Karl Liebknecht. He was a member of the USPD until 1919, when he rejoined the SPD. From 1920 to 1928, Bernstein was again a member of the Reichstag. On 4 March 1920, as an expert on Anglo-German relations under the

German Empire The German Empire (),; ; World Book, Inc. ''The World Book dictionary, Volume 1''. World Book, Inc., 2003. p. 572. States that Deutsches Reich translates as "German Realm" and was a former official name of Germany. also referred to as Imperia ...

, he became a member of the parliamentary committee investigating the war guilt question. He was one of only a few deputies on the committee to admit Germany's responsibility for the outbreak of war, setting himself apart from the majority of Reichstag members in the bourgeois parties. He retired from political life in 1928.

Death and legacy

Bernstein died on 18 December 1932 in Berlin. A commemorative plaque is placed in his memory at Bozener Straße 18, Berlin-Schöneberg, where he lived from 1918 until his death. His grave in the Eisackstrasse Cemetery became a ''grave of honour'' () in Berlin.

Main contributions

Opposition to violent revolution

''Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus'' (1899) was Bernstein's most significant work. Bernstein was principally concerned with refuting

's predictions about the imminent and inevitable demise of

capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...

and Marx's consequent laissez-faire policy which opposed ameliorative social interventions before the demise. Bernstein indicated simple facts, which he considered to be evidence that Marx's predictions were not being borne out while he noted that while the centralization of capitalist industry was significant, it was not becoming wholescale and that the ownership of capital was becoming more and not less diffuse.''Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus'' (1899) Bernstein's analysis of agriculture, according to which Bernstein believed that land ownership was becoming less concentrated, was largely based on the work of Eduard David and was in its marshalling of facts impressive enough that even his Orthodox Marxist opponent Karl Kautsky acknowledged its value. As to Marx's belief in the disappearance of the middleman, Bernstein declared that the

entrepreneur Entrepreneurship is the creation or extraction of economic value in ways that generally entail beyond the minimal amount of risk (assumed by a traditional business), and potentially involving values besides simply economic ones. An entreprene ...

class was being steadily recruited from the

proletariat The proletariat (; ) is the social class of wage-earners, those members of a society whose possession of significant economic value is their labour power (their capacity to work). A member of such a class is a proletarian or a . Marxist ph ...

class and so all compromise measures, such as the state regulation of the hours of labour and provisions for old-age pensions should be encouraged. For that reason, Bernstein urged the labouring classes to take an active interest in politics. Bernstein also indicated what he considered to be some of the flaws in Marx's

labour theory of value The labor theory of value (LTV) is a theory of value that argues that the exchange value of a good or service is determined by the total amount of " socially necessary labor" required to produce it. The contrasting system is typically known as ...

. Looking especially at the rapid growth in Germany, Bernstein argued that middle-sized firms would flourish, the size and power of the middle class would grow and that capitalism would successfully adjust and not collapse. He warned that a violent

proletarian revolution A proletarian revolution or proletariat revolution is a social revolution in which the working class attempts to overthrow the bourgeoisie and change the previous political system. Proletarian revolutions are generally advocated by socialist ...

, as in France in 1848, produced only

reactionary In politics, a reactionary is a person who favors a return to a previous state of society which they believe possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary.''The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought'' Third Edition, (1999) p. 729. ...

successes, which undermined workers' interests. Therefore, he rejected revolution and instead insisted the best strategy to be patiently building up a durable

social movement A social movement is either a loosely or carefully organized effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular goal, typically a Social issue, social or Political movement, political one. This may be to carry out a social change, or to re ...

working for continuous

nonviolent Nonviolence is the personal practice of not causing harm to others under any condition. It may come from the belief that hurting people, animals and/or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an outcome and it may refer to a general philosoph ...

incremental change. In his work, ''The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein and Social Democracy'', Manfred Steger touches on Bernstein's desire for socialism through peaceful means and incremental

legislation Legislation is the process or result of enrolling, enacting, or promulgating laws by a legislature, parliament, or analogous governing body. Before an item of legislation becomes law it may be known as a bill, and may be broadly referred ...

. Some say that is Marxism in its mature form after the revisionists claimed many of Marx's theories to be wrong and came up with theories of their own, including socialism coming through democratic means.

Bernstein's views under attack

Bernstein was vilified by the

orthodox Marxists Orthodox Marxism is the body of Marxist thought which emerged after the deaths of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the late 19th century, expressed in its primary form by Karl Kautsky. Kautsky's views of Marxism dominated the European Marxist ...

led by Karl Kautsky as well as the more radical current led by

for his revisionism. Nonetheless, Bernstein remained very much a socialist, albeit an unorthodox one as he believed that socialism would be achieved by the advancement of capitalism to social democracy and so on, not by capitalism's destruction (as rights were gradually won by workers, their cause for grievance would be diminished and consequently, so too would the motivation for revolution). During the intra-party debates about his ideas, Bernstein explained that for him the final goal of socialism was nothing; progress toward that goal was everything. Luxemburg argued that

socialism Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...

has its end in

social revolution Social revolutions are sudden changes in the structure and nature of society. These revolutions are usually recognized as having transformed society, economy, culture, philosophy, and technology along with but more than just the political system ...

and revisionism "amounts in practice to the advice ..that we abandon the social revolution—the goal of Social Democracy—and turn social reform from a means of the class struggle into its final aim". She says revisionism has lost sight of

scientific socialism Scientific socialism in Marxism is the application of historical materialism to the development of socialism, as not just a practical and achievable outcome of historical processes, but the only possible outcome. It contrasts with utopian social ...

and reverted to

idealism Idealism in philosophy, also known as philosophical realism or metaphysical idealism, is the set of metaphysics, metaphysical perspectives asserting that, most fundamentally, reality is equivalent to mind, Spirit (vital essence), spirit, or ...

and therefore lost its predictive force. Since reformists underestimate the anarchy of capitalism and say it has adaptability and viability, by which they mean that the contradictions of capitalism would not of historical necessity drive it to its doom, Luxemburg said they would abandon the objective necessity for socialism and give up all hope for a socialist future. The movement would collapse unless revisionism is repudiated. Trade unionists, who could see the successes of capitalism and the improvement of working conditions and who wanted to improve working conditions through parliament, generally followed Bernstein while those who were more orthodox generally followed Luxemburg.

Foreign policy

Foreign policy was Bernstein's main intellectual interest between 1902 and 1914, with many articles in the '' Sozialistische Monatshefte'' (''Socialist Monthly''). He advocated policy positions for Germany that were aggressively nationalist, imperialist and expansionist. Bernstein considered

protectionism Protectionism, sometimes referred to as trade protectionism, is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas, and a variety of other government regulations ...

(high tariffs on imports) as helping only a selective few, being ''fortschrittsfeindlich'' (anti-progressive) for its negative effects on the masses. He argued Germany's protectionism was based only on political expediency, isolating Germany from the world (especially from Britain), creating an

autarky Autarky is the characteristic of self-sufficiency, usually applied to societies, communities, states, and their economic systems. Autarky as an ideology or economic approach has been attempted by a range of political ideologies and movement ...

that would result only in conflict between Germany and the rest of the world. Bernstein wanted to end Germany's protectionism and argued that tariffs did not increase grain production, did not counter British competition, did not increase farm profits and did not promote improvements in farming. Instead, it inflated rents, interest rates and prices, hurting everyone involved. In contrast, he argued that

free trade Free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports. In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold Economic liberalism, economically liberal positions, while economic nationalist politica ...

led to peace, democracy, prosperity and the highest material and moral well-being of all humanity. Bernstein rejected reactionary bourgeois nationalism and called instead for a cosmopolitan-libertarian nationalism. He recognized the historical role of the national factor and said that the proletariat must support their country against external dangers. He called on workers to assimilate themselves within nation-states, which entailed support for colonial policies and imperial projects. Bernstein was sympathetic to the idea of imperial expansions as a positive and civilizing mission, which resulted in a bitter series of polemics with the anti-imperialist

Ernest Belfort Bax Ernest Belfort Bax (; 23 July 1854 – 26 November 1926) was an English people, English barrister, journalism, journalist, philosophy, philosopher, Men's rights movement, men's rights advocate, Socialism, socialist, and historian. Biography Er ...

. Bernstein supported colonialism as he believed it uplifted backward peoples and it worked well for both Britain and Germany. Bernstein supported such policies in an intensely racialized manner, arguing in 1896 that "races who are hostile to or incapable of civilisation cannot claim our sympathy when they revolt against civilisation" and that the "savages ustbe subjugated and made to conform to the rules of higher civilisation". However, he was disturbed by the Kaiser's reckless policies. He wanted strong friendship especially with Britain and France and protection against the Russian threat to Germany. He envisioned a sort of league of nations.Roger Fletcher, "An English Advocate in Germany. Eduard Bernstein’s Analysis of Anglo-German Relations 1900-1914." Canadian Journal of History 13.2 (1978) pp: 209-236.

Zionism

Bernstein's views on Jewish matters evolved. He never identified as a

Zionist Zionism is an Ethnic nationalism, ethnocultural nationalist movement that emerged in History of Europe#From revolution to imperialism (1789–1914), Europe in the late 19th century that aimed to establish and maintain a national home for the ...

, but after initially favouring a wholly assimilationist solution to "the Jewish Question", his attitude toward Zionism became considerably more sympathetic after World War I.

Homosexuality

Bernstein is also noted for being "one of the first socialists to deal sympathetically with the issue of homosexuality".

Works

''Ferdinand Lassalle as a Social Reformer.''
Eleanor Marx Aveling, trans. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1893.
''Evolutionary Socialism: A Criticism and Affirmation.''
899Edith C. Harvey, trans. New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1909. This book has also been translated into English as ''The Preconditions of Socialism''. *
Cromwell and Communism: Socialism and Democracy in the Great English Revolution
'' H.J. Stenning, trans. London: Allen and Unwin, 1930.
''My Years of Exile: Reminiscences of a Socialist.''
trans. Bernard Miall, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1921
online free
* ''Selected Writings of Eduard Bernstein, 1900–1921.'' Prometheus Books, 1996. * Marius S. Ostrowski (ed.)
''Eduard Bernstein on Social Democracy and International Politics: Essays and Other Writings''
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018. * Marius S. Ostrowski (ed.)
''Eduard Bernstein on the German Revolution: Selected Historical Writings''
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019. * Marius S. Ostrowski (ed.)
''Eduard Bernstein on Socialism Past and Present: Essays and Lectures on Ideology''
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021. * Klaus Leesch: ''Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932). Leben und Werk.'' Frankfurt a.M./New York: campus-Verlag, 2024.

Primary sources

* Tudor, Henry Tudor and J. M. Tudor, eds. ''Marxism and Social Democracy: The Revisionist Debate, 1896–1898.'' Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

References

Sources

* Fletcher, Richard A. "Cobden as Educator: The Free-Trade Internationalism of Eduard Bernstein, 1899–1914." ''American Historical Review'' 88.3 (1983): 561–578
online
* Fletcher, R. A. "In the interest of peace and progress: Eduard Bernstein's socialist foreign policy." ''Review of International Studies'' 9.2 (1983): 79–93. * Fletcher, Roger. "A Revisionist Looks at Imperialism: Eduard Bernstein's Critique of Imperialism and Kolonialpolitik, 1900–14." ''Central European History'' 12.3 (1979): 237–271. * Fletcher, Roger. "Revisionism and Nationalism: Eduard Bernstein's Views on the National Question, 1900–1914." ''Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism'' 11.1 (1984) pp 103–117. * Fletcher, Roger. "World Power without War. Eduard Bernstein's Proposals for an Alternative Weltpolitik, 1900–1914." ''Australian Journal of Politics & History'' 25.2 (1979): 228–236. * Fletcher, Roger. "An English Advocate in Germany. Eduard Bernstein’s Analysis of Anglo-German Relations 1900–1914." ''Canadian Journal of History'' 13.2 (1978): 209–236. * Gay, Peter, ''The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism: Eduard Bernstein's challenge to Marx.'' (Columbia UP, 1952
online
* Gustafsson, Bo. "A new look at Bernstein: Some reflections on reformism and history." ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 3#1-4 (1978): 275–296. * Hamilton, Richard F. ''Marxism, Revisionism, and Leninism: Explication, Assessment, and Commentary'' (Greenwood, 2000
online
* Hulse, James W. ''Revolutionists in London: A Study of Five Unorthodox Socialists.'' (Clarendon Press, 1970. * Ostrowski, Marius S. "Bernstein, Eduard." In Mortimer Sellers and Stephan Kirste (eds.), ''Encyclopedia of the Philosophy of Law and Social Philosophy'' (Springer, 2021)

online In computer technology and telecommunications, online indicates a state of connectivity, and offline indicates a disconnected state. In modern terminology, this usually refers to an Internet connection, but (especially when expressed as "on lin ...

* Leesch, Klaus "Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932) Leben und Werk." (Campus, 2024). * Ostrowski, Marius S. "Eduard Bernstein and the Lessons of the German Revolution." In James Muldoon and Gaard Kets (eds.), ''The German Revolution and Political Theory'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2019): 137–158
online
* Ostrowski, Marius S. "'Reform or revolution, ''redux'': Eduard Bernstein on the 1918–19 German Revolution." ''Historical Research'' 95.268 (2022): 213–239
online
* Ostrowski, Marius S. "Social Democracy and "positive" foreign policy: The evolution of Eduard Bernstein's international thought, 1914–1920." ''History of Political Thought'' 42.3 (2021): 520–564
online
* Pachter, Henry. "The Ambiguous Legacy of Eduard Bernstein." ''Dissent'' 28#2 (1981). pp 203–216. * Rogers, H. Kendall. ''Before the Revisionist Controversy: Kautsky, Bernstein, and the Meaning of Marxism, 1895–1898.'' (Routledge, 2015). * Steger, Manfred B. ''The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein and Social Democracy.'' (Cambridge UP, 1997). * Steger, Manfred. "Historical materialism and ethics: Eduard Bernstein's revisionist perspective." ''History of European Ideas'' 14.5 (1992): 647–663. * Thomas, Paul. ''Marxism & Scientific Socialism: From Engels to Althusser.'' (Routledge, 2008).

External links

* *

at Marxists Internet Archive

* ttps://books.google.com/books?id=sK2ZAAAAIAAJ Evolutionary Socialism: a Criticism and Affirmation: (Die Voraussetzungen Des Sozialismus und Die Aufgaben Der Sozialdemokratie)(Google Books) * Archive o
Eduard Bernstein Papers
at the

International Institute of Social History International is an adjective (also used as a noun) meaning "between nations". International may also refer to: Music Albums * ''International'' (Kevin Michael album), 2011 * ''International'' (New Order album), 2002 * ''International'' (The T ...

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Bernstein, Eduard 1850 births 1932 deaths People from Schöneberg Politicians from Berlin People from the Province of Brandenburg Jewish German politicians Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians Independent Social Democratic Party politicians Members of the 10th Reichstag of the German Empire Members of the 11th Reichstag of the German Empire Members of the 13th Reichstag of the German Empire Members of the Reichstag 1920–1924 Members of the Reichstag 1924 Members of the Reichstag 1924–1928 Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold members German Marxists Marxist theorists German anti-poverty advocates Jewish socialists 19th-century German Jews European democratic socialists Critics of dialectical materialism