The Estates General of 1560–1561 was a national meeting of the three estates of France, the clergy, nobility and commoners convoked by

François II Francis II (; 19 January 1544 – 5 December 1560) was King of France from 1559 to 1560. He was also King of Scotland as the husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, from 1558 until his death in 1560. He ascended the throne of France at age 15 af ...

, though he would die before it could begin. It represented the first meeting of the estates general in 76 years, the last one having been convened by Charles VIII at Tours. Meeting at

Orléans Orléans (,"Orleans"
(US) and Habsburg–Valois Wars, and the growing religious problem caused by the

Reformation The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major Theology, theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the p ...

. The estates would however be unable to finish their deliberations, with

Catherine de' Medici Catherine de' Medici (, ; , ; 13 April 1519 – 5 January 1589) was an Italian Republic of Florence, Florentine noblewoman of the Medici family and Queen of France from 1547 to 1559 by marriage to Henry II of France, King Henry II. Sh ...

proroguing the session, and reconvening the estates general at a later date in 1561 at

Pontoise Pontoise () is a commune north of Paris, France. It is located from the centre of Paris, in the "new town" of Cergy-Pontoise. Administration Pontoise is the official (capital) of the Val-d'Oise '' département'', although in reality the ' ...

, where she sought a more agreeable selection of delegates. Ultimately the work of the estates would solve neither the crowns fiscal insolvency or the religious conflict, which exploded in the first French War of Religion.

Prior crisis

Financial

With the

peace of Cateau-Cambrésis Peace is a state of harmony in the absence of hostility and violence, and everything that discusses achieving human welfare through justice and peaceful conditions. In a societal sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict (such a ...

in 1559, the crown was left on the cusp of bankruptcy. The public deficit stood at 40 million livres, of which 19 million was owed immediately. The interest rates on these loans were not insignificant, as lenders had grown wary of the crowns inability to pay over the years and this lack of confidence would only be furthered with Henry II's death. Many royal officials had been without pay for four years. An optimistic assessment put the crown's annual revenue at 12 million livres total, though this was not truly feasible to raise due to evasion. These fiscal problems were compounded by a crisis of authority, with the king,

Henry II Henry II may refer to: Kings * Saint Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor (972–1024), crowned King of Germany in 1002, of Italy in 1004 and Emperor in 1014 *Henry II of England (1133–89), reigned from 1154 *Henry II of Jerusalem and Cyprus (1271–1 ...

accidentally killed during a celebration marking the peace on 10 July. With his death the administration passed into the hands of the sickly young

who was governed by his maternal uncles,

François, Duke of Guise François de Lorraine, 2nd Duke of Guise, 1st Prince of Joinville, and 1st Duke of Aumale (17 February 1519 – 24 February 1563), was a French general and statesman. A prominent leader during the Italian War of 1551–1559 and French Wars of Re ...

and

Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine Charles de Lorraine (17 February 1524 – 26 December 1574), Duke of Chevreuse, was a French Cardinal, a member of the powerful House of Guise. He was known at first as the Cardinal of Guise, and then as the second Cardinal of Lorraine, after t ...

. To try and set about fixing the realms finances, they embarked upon an aggressive campaign of cost cutting, scaling down the size of the army from its height in the wars, and deferring payments to the troops, who angrily protested against the Guises. This would not however be enough, so they were moved to raise forced loans from the provinces, such as 800,000 livres from Normandy, to cover shortfalls. They further suppressed

Venal office In the context of the French Ancien Régime, a venal office refers to an office sold by the state to raise money. These offices, which were mostly in areas of the judicial system, were retained in exchange for an annual tax of one-sixtieth of the ...

. Forced loans would continue into 1560, with 100,000 crowns being demanded of the Parlement and merchants of Paris in October 1560, shortly after the convoking of the estates had taken place.

Religious

Despite the efforts of Henri II,

Calvinism Reformed Christianity, also called Calvinism, is a major branch of Protestantism that began during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. In the modern day, it is largely represented by the Continental Reformed Christian, Presbyteri ...

had continued to grow in France. This first reached a head after France lost the battle of St. Quentin with a mob storming a

Huguenot The Huguenots ( , ; ) are a Religious denomination, religious group of French people, French Protestants who held to the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition of Protestantism. The term, which may be derived from the name of a Swiss political leader, ...

worship sight on the ''rue Saint-Jacques,'' believing them responsible. After this things quieted down until Henri II attended a mercurial session of Parlement in June 1559, to complain about the Parlements lax handling of heresy cases, and to push them to deal with radicals in their ranks. After this, several of the more radical deputies rose to challenge the king, including

Anne du Bourg Anne du Bourg (1521, Riom – 23 December 1559, Paris) was a French magistrate, nephew of the chancellor Antoine du Bourg, and a Protestant martyr. Early life Educated at the university of Orléans, he became a professor and had Étienne de l ...

who personally attacked the king, enraging him. The king ordered the arrest of du Bourg and 6 others, vowing to see du Bourg burn with own eyes. The trial of du Bourg exploded religious tensions in the capital, with many attempts to jail break him and a leading conservative Parlementaire being assassinated in December. This would all aid the precipitation of the Saint-Medard religious riot in December, that left several dead. The situation continued to deteriorate in France in 1560, with a wide-ranging Huguenot involved conspiracy to kidnap the king and remove his

Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

guardians, the Guise. After the failure of Amboise, the south of France fell increasingly out of the governments hands, as the Protestant heartlands began seeing the seizure of churches, and further attempting a violent seizure of Lyon in August. All this increased the urgency of a solution to the religious question, that the Cardinal of Lorraine believed could be attained with a reformation of morals in the Catholic church, to excise corruption and absentee bishops, thus bringing Protestant, and Catholic back into the same fold.

Political

The sudden death of Henri II in 1559, meant that the King of France was now François II, a 15-year-old boy, technically old enough to rule without a regency, but lacking the will or constitution to do so. This created a situation of sharp contrast with the previous decade, where there was no longer a strong royal figure at the centre of the administration guiding policy. This crisis was only furthered more by his death in turn at the age of 16, to be succeeded by his minor brother

Charles IX of France Charles IX (Charles Maximilien; 27 June 1550 – 30 May 1574) was List of French monarchs, King of France from 1560 until his death in 1574. He ascended the French throne upon the death of his brother Francis II of France, Francis II in 1560, an ...

on 5 December 1560. This meant a formal regency would be required, which would require the approval of the estates general to be legal. The estates were thought to be preferential towards a regency under

Antoine of Navarre Antoine (, , 22 April 1518 – 17 November 1562), sometimes called Antoine of Bourbon, was King of Navarre from 1555 until his death in 1562 as the husband and co-ruler of Queen Jeanne III. He was the first monarch of the House of Bourbon, of whi ...

so to head this off, Catherine made a deal with him by which he renounced his rights to the regency, in return for the position of

Lieutenant General Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the battlefield, who was norma ...

Calling the Estates General

In August 1560, in the wake of the

Conspiracy of Amboise The Amboise conspiracy, also called Tumult of Amboise, was a failed attempt by a Huguenot faction in France to gain control over the young King Francis II and to reverse the policies of the current administration of Francis, Duke of Guise and C ...

and

Lyon Lyon (Franco-Provençal: ''Liyon'') is a city in France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of the French Alps, southeast of Paris, north of Marseille, southwest of Geneva, Switzerland, north ...

, the Guise summoned an

Assembly of Notables An Assembly of Notables () was a group of high-ranking nobles, ecclesiastics, and state functionaries convened by the King of France on extraordinary occasions to consult on matters of state. Assemblymen were prominent men, usually of the aristo ...

, composed of the leading aristocrats of the realm, with the exception of

and Louis, Prince of Condé who were conscious they would likely be arrested if they attended. At this assembly the 40 grandees announced a proposal for a package of reforms, for an Estates General to consider and concurrently called for a national religious council. The intention was for this estates general to convene at

Meaux Meaux () is a Communes of France, commune on the river Marne (river), Marne in the Seine-et-Marne Departments of France, department in the Île-de-France Regions of France, region in the Functional area (France), metropolitan area of Paris, Franc ...

however with the rebellious atmosphere in the country, it was decided to move the location from this heart of French

Protestantism Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...

to Orléans instead. The proposed start date being 10 December. Conde arrived at Orléans for the estates general on 30 October, and was promptly arrested, accused of involvement in Amboise and Lyon and sentenced to death.

Orléans

Preparation

Before the estates proper could convene preparatory local assemblies were held among the individual estates, with the third and second estate concluding among themselves that clerical property should be confiscated, both as a tonic to the crowns financial problems, and as a method of righting the wrongs in the church morally. This they held would allow the king to reduce taxation. Grimaudet was one of the champions of this among the second estate, critiquing the wasteful nature of clerical administration alongside the abuses of the clergy. He also critiqued what he felt had become a dilution of nobility, with men of common stock entering the ranks of the second estate off the back of their wealth.

Opening the estates

The estates of Orléans would be opened by a speech from the reformist chancellor

Michel de l'Hôpital Michel de l'Hôpital (or l'Hospital; 1506 – 13 March 1573) was a French lawyer, diplomat and chancellor during the latter Italian Wars and the early French Wars of Religion. The son of a doctor in the service of Constable Bourbon he spent his e ...

in which he called for the suppression of religious passions. Urging the members assembled to repress these animosities so administrative and political reform could be achieved. He took the line of Lorraine in suggesting that heresy had sprung up due to the deficiencies of the present church, and that by a reform in that, it might be possible to bring the two congregations back together. He further highlighted the extraordinary circumstances facing the 10 year old Charles, orphaned and in a great deal of debt with much of the royal lands alienated. The estates general immediately ran into difficulties with the nobility, factions of whom protested that their commissions to meet had been granted by the late François, and that they would require a fresh commission from Charles IX to begin the tasks of the assembly. The queen inquired as to who held this position, asking for a list of names, however none would sign themselves as to holding the view. After some delay, during which the ''cahiers'' were handed in by the participating delegates, the estates began their work.

Religion

On the agenda were matters of justice, religion and finance, with the third estate, whose speaker was an ''avocat du roi'' from Bordeaux, presenting their case on the matter of religion first. He demanded a general council, the discipline of the clergy who had fallen into lax morals and vice, the alteration of justice and the removal of tax burden. The third estates orator also advocated for a general pardon for the goings on of Amboise, and the introduction of elections to ensure worthy prelates represented the church. Next up was the orator for the nobility, represented by the ''sieur'' de Rochefort. De Rochefort championed the nobility as the prime pillar of the state, arguing the clergy in their wealth were usurping this natural role of the aristocracy, colouring his argument in allusions to the

Bible The Bible is a collection of religious texts that are central to Christianity and Judaism, and esteemed in other Abrahamic religions such as Islam. The Bible is an anthology (a compilation of texts of a variety of forms) originally writt ...

and

Herodotus Herodotus (; BC) was a Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus (now Bodrum, Turkey), under Persian control in the 5th century BC, and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria, Italy. He wrote the '' Histori ...

. The nobility further argued that their rights as pillars of the state gave them the ability to choose how they worshipped freely, in the manner of the

peace of Augsburg The Peace of Augsburg (), also called the Augsburg Settlement, was a treaty between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and the Schmalkaldic League, signed on 25 September 1555 in the German city of Augsburg. It officially ended the religious struggl ...

. Quintin represented the first order for the clergy, arguing for prelate election to be left to the clergy, a cease to abuse of the ''dîme'' which he asserted had been extorted from the church many times a year and that attacks on church property cease. He further argued that heresy should be suppressed. One deputy took the position that the Huguenots should be granted churches in which to worship, earning a stinging rebuke from Quintin before Coligny came to his defence. The estates general as a whole proved unable or unwilling to come to any grand conclusions on religious policy, settling on a pardon for all those accused of involvement in the troubles of the year, without a requirement for any formal recantation. Further ordinances on the matter of religion were passed by the estates on the matter of the election of bishops, which was removed from the king's authority and given to a group of 12 nobleman, commoners and clergy to create. Annates to

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

including the

Peter's Pence Peter's Pence (or ''Denarii Sancti Petri'' and "Alms of St Peter") are donations or payments made directly to the Holy See of the Catholic Church. The practice began under the Saxons in Kingdom of England, England and spread through Europe. Both ...

were to be cancelled, as it was argued these were immiserating the kingdom. A deputy was sent off to Rome to inform the Pope of this decision.

Justice and finance

Having discussed religion the estates moved on to justice, a matter that proved too thorny for them to handle, as the repurchase of the venal judicial offices by the crown that was desired was too expensive for the crown to currently contemplate. Thus the estates came quickly to the matter of finance. Here some proposed bringing the officers of finance to account for the various alienations of the previous years, however others viewed this unwise, as most of these alienations had gone to influential nobles who it was unwise to anger and they prevailed. Cost cutting was taken up as an alternative, with all gentlemen in the king's household to have their stipends reduced by 50% whilst pensions would be reduced across the board by 33% except for foreign nobles. The Scots guard was to be cut down in size by 200 men. However such measures alone would not provide fiscal stability for the crown, and more drastic means would be required. The great wealth of the church made itself an appropriate target for these efforts, with plans drawn up to requisition church land. The Pope was not entirely opposed to this idea, more fearful as he was of a national church council in France, and eager to buy it off with alienations of church property. On the condition of this, and France maintaining a fleet against the

Ottomans Ottoman may refer to: * Osman I, historically known in English as "Ottoman I", founder of the Ottoman Empire * Osman II, historically known in English as "Ottoman II" * Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empir ...

it was agreed for a 5-year plan of appropriation taking 360,000 ducats per annum in appropriations. All this business done, the estates were promptly prorogued by Catherine in February, irritated that on the matter of her regency they were proving hostile.

Pontoise

Prior to convening

New elections accompanied the reconvening of the estates general at Pontoise, with each ''bailli'' sending two representatives, this allowed the crown to judge the relative mood of the representatives to see if it would be more favourable to their agenda. The estates of the

Île-de-France The Île-de-France (; ; ) is the most populous of the eighteen regions of France, with an official estimated population of 12,271,794 residents on 1 January 2023. Centered on the capital Paris, it is located in the north-central part of the cou ...

region made their oppositional stance known early, pushing for an examination of the accounts of the previous king, a return to the 'ancient constitution' of France and the removal of Catherine de' Medici from the regency. Then the prohibition of any ecclesiastical person from place in the ''conseil privé'' and that Navarre be given the regency, with the king's education led by Admiral Coligny and Rochefoucauld. If all their demands were met they promised to relieve the king of his debts.

Third estates proposal

This troubling auger out of the way, the estates in full assembled. This time the mayor of

Autun Autun () is a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture of the Saône-et-Loire Departments of France, department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté Regions of France, region of central-eastern France. It was founded during the Principate era of the e ...

Bretaigne orated for the third estate. He spoke at length about how decades of war and courtly excess had immiserated the population, leaving them nothing to offer him for his debts except goodwill. Thus he proposed instead the claiming of more church land as a tonic for the crown. This would be a much more aggressive seizure than the deal struck at Orléans however, with Bretaigne proposing the taking of all offices, benefices and dignities that are not officiated in a personal capacity. Further that from benefices that are attended in person an amount on an increasing scale should be taxed of them with a flat rate kept by the clergy after their income exceeded 12000 livres. For monastic orders, the entire income not needed to clothe and feed the monks should be seized. If these measures were insufficient to save the crowns finance Bretaigne proposed direct sale of church property, arguing 26 million livres worth could be raised in such a fashion.

The crown's compromise

This provocative proposal aroused fury from the Constable

Anne de Montmorency Anne de Montmorency, duc de Montmorency ( – 12 November 1567) was a French noble, governor, royal favourite and Constable of France during the mid to late Italian Wars and early French Wars of Religion. He served under five French kings (Loui ...

who was in attendance, exclaiming the speaker should be hanged. The clergy realising that the crown had few realistic proposals to reach solvency other than through taking from the church offered a counter proposal, arguing that they could award the crown a ten million livres gift, for not taking the third estate's idea. The crown was unsatisfied by this, and after some negotiation, settled on a yearly gift of 1,600,000 livres. This alone would not however be enough to rescue the crown and after several months more negotiation up to the end of the year it was agreed the clergy would purchase back the mortgaged royal domain over the following six years. With this out of the way the combined estates would prove more amenable to the queen's position on the regency. Despite their earlier mutterings.

Registration and legacy

Registration

When the Ordinance of Orléans, which embodied the conclusions reached at the estates general, came before the

Parlement Under the French Ancien Régime, a ''parlement'' () was a provincial appellate court of the Kingdom of France. In 1789, France had 13 ''parlements'', the original and most important of which was the ''Parlement'' of Paris. Though both th ...

of Paris to register into law, the Parlement balked. Challenging it both on procedural and constitutional grounds they refused to register it. They first attacked the crown for telling them they didn't need to scrutinise it due to being a subordinate part of the wider estates general themselves. They further critiqued the crown for trying to hurry it through the Parlement by submitting it just before the Parlement broke for summer vacation. These procedural matters through, they moved on to attacking the ordinances on constitutional grounds, highlighting how the ordinance covered clerical matters despite the fact there was a concurrent assembly of bishops debating religious issues. The Parlement argued it was improper to have two assemblies debating the same issues at the same time. In November

visited the Parlement to chastise them for their insolence, characterising their actions as an illegal usurpation of legislative power. The ordinance would be registered.

Legacy

The financial obligations regarding the clergy would be poorly enforced. Necessitating a subsequent agreement be made in 1563 and 1567. By 1567 the clergy had successfully finished their 'gifts' and were ready to commence re-purchase of the royal domain. By now though the king desired more, and wanted to continue the yearly payments of 1,600,000. This caused outraged protest from the clergy, as a violation of the Pontoise agreement. The crown persisted regardless, but as a compromise cancelled the 'secular tithe' and allowed the clergy to raise their own taxation for the first time ever. This agreement too would be violated, with the king sequestering 2,000,000 livres arbitrarily in 1572, and engaging in compulsory alienations of church land in 1568 and 1574. The multiple civil wars having kept the crown away from financial stability the crown almost collapsing again from financial strain in 1570 as the third civil war dragged on.

References

{{Estates General of France

1560 Year 1560 ( MDLX) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. Events January–March * January 7 – In the Kingdom of Scotland, French troops commanded by Henri Cleutin and Captain Corbeyran de Cardaillac Sar ...

1560 in France 1561 in France 1561 in law Catherine de' Medici