The (; ) is a Chinese two-stringed
bowed musical instrument, more specifically a
spike fiddle, that is sometimes known in the Western world as the ''Chinese violin'' or a ''Chinese two-stringed fiddle''. It is used as a solo instrument as well as in small ensembles and large orchestras. It is the most popular of the family of traditional bowed string instruments used by various ethnic groups of China. As a very versatile instrument, the is used in both traditional and contemporary music arrangements, such as pop, rock and
jazz
Jazz is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its roots are in blues, ragtime, European harmony, African rhythmic rituals, spirituals, h ...
.
History
The can be traced back to proto-Mongolic instruments which first appeared in
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
during the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
. It is believed to have evolved from the (). The is believed to have originated from the
Xi people located in current
northeast China
Northeast China () is a geographical region of China, consisting officially of three provinces Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang. The heartland of the region is the Northeast China Plain, the largest plain in China with an area of over . The regi ...
.
The first
Chinese character
Chinese characters are logographs used to write the Chinese languages and others from regions historically influenced by Chinese culture. Of the four independently invented writing systems accepted by scholars, they represent the only on ...
of the name of the instrument (, , 'two') is believed to come from the fact that it has two strings. An alternate explanation states that it comes from the fact that it is the second-highest in pitch to the in the modern
Chinese orchestra
The term Chinese orchestra is most commonly used to refer to the modern Chinese orchestra that is found in China and various overseas Chinese communities. This modern Chinese orchestra first developed out of Jiangnan sizhu ensemble in the 1920s ...
. The second character (, ) indicates that it is a member of the family, with commonly translated to mean 'barbarians'. The name literally means 'instrument of the
Hu peoples', suggesting that the instrument may have originated from regions to the north or west of China generally inhabited by nomadic people on the extremities of past
Chinese kingdoms.
For most of history, the was mostly a folk instrument used in southern China, whereas the was preferred among northern musicians. However, in the 1920s,
Liu Tianhua introduced the to
Beijing
Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
, and since, it has become the most popular of the .
Historical and bowed string bows
Historic bowed
zither
Zither (; , from the Greek ''cithara'') is a class of stringed instruments. The modern instrument has many strings stretched across a thin, flat body.
Zithers are typically played by strumming or plucking the strings with the fingers or a ...
s of China, including the , , and , and also the Korean , were originally played by
bowing
Bowing (also called stooping) is the act of lowering the torso and Human head, head as a social gesture in direction to another person or symbol. It is most prominent in Asian cultures but it is also typical of nobility and aristocracy in many E ...
with a
rosin
Rosin (), also known as colophony or Greek pitch (), is a resinous material obtained from pine trees and other plants, mostly conifers. The primary components of rosin are diterpenoids, i.e., C20 carboxylic acids. Rosin consists mainly of r ...
ed stick, which created friction against the strings. As soon as the
horsehair
Horsehair is the long hair growing on the Mane (horse), manes and Tail (horse), tails of horses. It is used for various purposes, including upholstery, brushes, the Bow (music), bows of musical instruments, a hard-wearing Textile, fabric called ...
bow was invented, it spread very widely.
Construction
The consists of a long vertical stick-like
neck
The neck is the part of the body in many vertebrates that connects the head to the torso. It supports the weight of the head and protects the nerves that transmit sensory and motor information between the brain and the rest of the body. Addition ...
, at the top of which are two big
tuning pegs, and at the bottom is a small resonator body (
sound box) which is covered with
python skin on the front (playing) end. Two strings are attached from the pegs to the base, and a small loop of string (, ) placed around the neck and strings acting as a
nut pulls the strings towards the skin, holding a minute wooden bridge in place.
The has some unusual features:
* Its characteristic sound is produced through the vibration of the
python skin by bowing.
* There is no fingerboard; the player stops the strings by pressing their fingertips onto the strings without the strings touching the neck.
* The horse hair bow is never separated from the strings (which were formerly of twisted silk but which today are usually made of metal); it passes between them as opposed to over them (the latter being the case with western bowed
stringed instruments).
* Although there are two strings, they are very close to each other and the player's left hand in effect plays as if on one string. The inside string (nearest to player) is generally tuned to D4 and the outside string to A4, a fifth higher. The maximum range of the instrument is three and a half octaves, from D4 up to A7, before a stopping finger reaches the part of the string in contact with the bow hair. The usual playing range is about two and a half octaves.
Various dense and heavy hardwoods are used in making the . According to Chinese references the woods include (,
red sandalwood and other woods of the genus ''
Pterocarpus'' such as
padauk), (, aged red wood), (, black wood), and (, red wood). Particularly fine are often made from pieces of old furniture. A typical measures from top to bottom, the length of the bow also being 81 cm.
The parts of the are:
* (),
sound box or resonator body; it is hexagonal (, southern), octagonal (, northern), or, less commonly, round.
* (), skin, made from
python. The python skin gives the its characteristic sound.
* (),
neck
The neck is the part of the body in many vertebrates that connects the head to the torso. It supports the weight of the head and protects the nerves that transmit sensory and motor information between the brain and the rest of the body. Addition ...
.
* (), top or tip of neck, usually a simple curve with a piece of bone or plastic on top, but is sometimes elaborately carved with a
dragon
A dragon is a Magic (supernatural), magical legendary creature that appears in the folklore of multiple cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but European dragon, dragons in Western cultures since the Hi ...
's head.
* ().
tuning pegs, traditional wooden, or metal machine gear pegs
* (),
nut, made from string, or, less commonly, a metal hook
* (), inside or inner string, usually tuned to D4, nearest to player
* (), outside or outer string, usually tuned to A4
* (), bridge, made from wood
* (), bow, has screw device to vary bow hair tension
* (), bow stick, made from
bamboo
Bamboos are a diverse group of mostly evergreen perennial plant, perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily (biology), subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family, in th ...
* (), bow hair, usually white horsehair
* (), pad, a piece of sponge, felt, or cloth placed between the strings and skin below the bridge to improve its sound
* (), base, a piece of wood attached to the bottom of the to provide a smooth surface on which to rest on the leg
Most are mass-produced in factories. The three most esteemed centres of making are
Beijing
Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
,
Shanghai
Shanghai, Shanghainese: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: is a direct-administered municipality and the most populous urban area in China. The city is located on the Chinese shoreline on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the ...
, and
Suzhou
Suzhou is a major prefecture-level city in southern Jiangsu province, China. As part of the Yangtze Delta megalopolis, it is a major economic center and focal point of trade and commerce.
Founded in 514 BC, Suzhou rapidly grew in size by the ...
. In the collectivist period after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, these factories were formed by merging what had been previously private workshops. Although most were machine-made in production lines, the highest quality instruments were handmade by specialist craftsmen.
In the 20th century, there have been attempts to standardize and improve the , with the aim of producing a louder and better sounding instrument. One major change was the use of steel strings instead of silk. The move to steel strings was made gradually. By 1950 the thinner A-string had been replaced by a violin E-string with the thicker D-string remaining silk. By 1958 professional players were using purpose made D and A steel strings as standard.
Use of python skin
In 1988 China passed its Law on the Protection of Endangered Species after ratifying the UN Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (
CITES
CITES (shorter acronym for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals from the threats of inte ...
), making it illegal to use and trade unlicensed pythons. To regulate the use of python skins, China's State Forestry Administration introduced a certification scheme between python skin sellers in
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...
and musical instrument makers in China. From January 1, 2005, new regulations also require to have a certificate from the State Forestry Administration, which certify that the python skin is not made with wild pythons, but from farm-raised pythons. Individuals are allowed to take up to two out of China when traveling; commercial buyers need additional export certificates.
Outside China, manufacturers of can issue their own
CITES
CITES (shorter acronym for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as the Washington Convention) is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals from the threats of inte ...
licenses with approval by governments of their respective countries. Such exports are legal as they have been made from legal skin sources.
Some are made of recycled products.
The
Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra began their research for an alternative to python skin in 2005 and has since designed the Eco- series, which substitutes python skin with
PET
A pet, or companion animal, is an animal kept primarily for a person's company or entertainment rather than as a working animal, livestock, or a laboratory animal. Popular pets are often considered to have attractive/ cute appearances, inte ...
Polyester Membrane. For this innovation the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra received the
Ministry of Culture Innovation Award in 2012.
music

A notable
composer
A composer is a person who writes music. The term is especially used to indicate composers of Western classical music, or those who are composers by occupation. Many composers are, or were, also skilled performers of music.
Etymology and def ...
for the was
Liú Tiānhuá (, 1895–1932), a Chinese musician who also studied Western music. He composed 47 exercises and 10 solo pieces (1918–1932) which were central to the development of the as a solo instrument. His works for the instrument include (; Moon Night) and (; Shadows of Candles Flickering Red).
Other solo pieces include (1950, Two Springs Reflecting the Moon) by Abing, (Horse Race) by Huang Haihuai, (Henan Folk Tune) by
Liu Mingyuan, and (1961, Sanmen Gorge Capriccio) by Liu Wenjin. Most solo works are commonly performed with accompaniment, although pieces such as the ten solos by Liú Tiānhuá and (Two Springs Reflecting the Moon) originally did not have accompaniment.
In addition to the solo repertoire, the is one of the main instruments in regional music ensembles such as ,
Chinese opera
Traditional Chinese opera (), or ''Xiqu'', is a form of musical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more tha ...
ensembles, and the modern large
Chinese orchestra
The term Chinese orchestra is most commonly used to refer to the modern Chinese orchestra that is found in China and various overseas Chinese communities. This modern Chinese orchestra first developed out of Jiangnan sizhu ensemble in the 1920s ...
.
The is used in the music of the
Cirque du Soleil
Cirque du Soleil (, ; ) is a Canadian entertainment company and the largest contemporary circus producer in the world. Located in the inner-city area of Saint-Michel, Montreal, Saint-Michel, Montreal, it was founded in Baie-Saint-Paul on 16 Jun ...
show ''
O'' and in solo performances in select
Shen Yun tours. Even fusion
progressive rock
Progressive rock (shortened as prog rock or simply prog) is a broad genre of rock music that primarily developed in the United Kingdom through the mid- to late 1960s, peaking in the early-to-mid-1970s. Initially termed " progressive pop", the ...
groups like
The Hsu-nami have incorporated the into their music and it is their lead instrument. It is incorporated in the Taiwanese
black metal
Black metal is an extreme metal, extreme subgenre of heavy metal music. Common traits include Tempo#Beats per minute, fast tempos, a Screaming (music)#Black metal, shrieking vocal style, heavily distorted Electric guitar, guitars played with tr ...
band
ChthoniC
In Greek mythology, deities referred to as chthonic () or chthonian () were gods or spirits who inhabited the underworld or existed in or under the earth, and were typically associated with death or fertility. The terms "chthonic" and "chthonian" ...
and played by the Tibetan singer
alan
Alan may refer to:
People
*Alan (surname), an English and Kurdish surname
* Alan (given name), an English given name
** List of people with given name Alan
''Following are people commonly referred to solely by "Alan" or by a homonymous name.''
* ...
, and used in the song "Field Below" by
Regina Spektor
Regina Ilyinichna Spektor (, ; born February 18, 1980) is a Russian Americans, Russian-born American singer, songwriter, and pianist.
After self-releasing her first three records and gaining popularity in New York City's Indie music scene, in ...
.
An instrumental album by artist
Song Fei () expresses the painting
Along the River During the Qingming Festival (; ) drawn in the Song dynasty by
Zhang Zeduan
Zhang Zeduan (; 1085–1145), courtesy name Zhengdao (), was a Chinese painter of the Song dynasty. He lived during the transitional period from the Northern Song to the Southern Song, and was instrumental in the early history of the Chinese la ...
(). It was performed with the , , , , etc., to show the livelihood, trade, festival of the Song dynasty; the album contains 18 parts.
More recently, the has appeared in several soundtracks, featuring prominently in the TV series ''
Earth: Final Conflict'' (played by
George Gao) and the
massively multiplayer online role-playing game
A massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) is a video game that combines aspects of a role-playing video game and a massively multiplayer online game.
As in role-playing games (RPGs), the player assumes the role of a Player charac ...
''
World of Warcraft: Mists of Pandaria'' (played by
Jiebing Chen). An solo is featured in several cues related to
Vulcans from 2009's
''Star Trek'' soundtrack by
Michael Giacchino
Michael Giacchino ( , ; born October 10, 1967) is an American film, television, and video game score composer. He has received many accolades for his work, including an Academy Award for ''Up (2009 film), Up'' (2009), an Emmy Award, Emmy for Lo ...
.
Musical groups for wedding celebrations in
Cambodia
Cambodia, officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. It is bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, and Vietnam to the east, and has a coastline ...
often use the
Tro, a similar instrument to the .
An is listed in the credits for the
Doug Anthony All Stars album ''
Icon
An icon () is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, in the cultures of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic Church, Catholic, and Lutheranism, Lutheran churches. The most common subjects include Jesus, Mary, mother of ...
'' as being played by
Paul McDermott. The erhu can be heard in the character songs of China, a character in ''
Axis Powers Hetalia''.
In 2020, the release of Genshin Impact, Players around the globe were treated to a mixture of traditional Chinese music and fusion with Western orchestra, including pieces that featured the Erhu.
Comparisons to Western instruments
Violin
The is often described as a Chinese fiddle. However, when compared to a western
fiddle
A fiddle is a Bow (music), bowed String instrument, string musical instrument, most often a violin or a bass. It is a colloquial term for the violin, used by players in all genres, including European classical music, classical music. Althou ...
(violin), it has several key differences:
* While most of both instruments are built largely from wood, the bridge and sound production mechanisms differ greatly. The bridge of an has a flat base, and does not require "fitting" onto an instrument. The reason is that the uses a stretched and flattened
python skin as its "top", whereas a violin uses a curved wooden plate.
* The python skin is the primary tone-producing surface of the instrument with either no back or a decorative one, but the violin has a sound post that couples the top and the back's vibrations.
* The bow's technique also differs. have the hairs of the bow strung between the two strings, and both sides of the bow hair are used. The violin is played with the bow hair placed on top of the strings.
* The has only two strings while violin has four.
Playing technique
Tuning
The is almost always tuned to the interval of a
fifth. The inside string (nearest to player) is generally tuned to D4 and the outside string to A4. This is the same as the two middle strings of the violin.
Position
The is played sitting down, with the sound box placed on the top of the left thigh and the neck held vertically, in the similar fashion as that of a cello or double bass player. However, performers of more recent years have played while standing up using a specially developed belt-clip.
Right hand
The bow is held with an underhand grip. The bow hair is adjusted so it is slightly loose. The fingers of the right hand are used to push the hairs away from the stick in order to create tension in the hairs. The bow hair is placed in between the two strings and both sides of the bow hair are used to produce sound, the player pushes the bow away from the body when bowing the A string (the outside string), and pulls it inwards when bowing the "inside" D string.
Because the bow rests on the barrel, either string can be bowed with minimal effort; the outer string can be played by pressing the stick downwards with the thumb, and the inner string by pressing the hair towards the player with the middle finger. All other fingers are technically unnecessary and are only used to support and stabilize the bow.
Aside from the bowing technique used for most pieces, the can be plucked, usually using the second finger of the right hand. This produces a dry, muted tone (if either of the open strings is plucked, the sound is somewhat more resonant) which is sometimes used in contemporary pieces such as Horse Race.
Left hand
The left hand alters the pitch of the strings by pressing on the string at the desired point. Being a fretless instrument, the player has fine control over tuning. Techniques include (slides), (vibrato), and (changing positions).
Notable performers

Prior to the 20th century, most instruments were used primarily to accompany various forms of
Chinese opera
Traditional Chinese opera (), or ''Xiqu'', is a form of musical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more tha ...
and
narrative
A narrative, story, or tale is any account of a series of related events or experiences, whether non-fictional (memoir, biography, news report, documentary, travel literature, travelogue, etc.) or fictional (fairy tale, fable, legend, thriller ...
. The use of the as a solo instrument began in the early 20th century along with the development of (literally 'national music'), a modernized form of Chinese traditional music written or adapted for the professional concert stage. Active in the early 20th century were Zhou Shaomei (; 1885–1938) and Liú Tiānhuá. Liú laid the foundations of modern playing with his ten unaccompanied solos and 47 studies composed in the 1920s and 1930s. Liu Beimao (; 1903–1981) was born in Jiangyin, Jiangsu. His compositions include (1943) (Little Flower-drum). Jiang Fengzhi (; 1908–1986) and Chen Zhenduo () were students of Liú Tiānhuá, the piece (Autumn Moon over the Han Palace) was adapted and arranged by Jiang.
Hua Yanjun (A Bing) (, 1893–1950) was a blind street musician. Shortly before his death in 1950, two Chinese musicologists recorded him playing a few and solo pieces, the best-known being .
With the founding of the
People's Republic of China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
and the expansion of the conservatory system, the solo tradition continued to develop. Important performers during this time include Lu Xiutang (; 1911–1966), Zhang Rui (; born 1920), Sun Wenming (; 1928–1962), Huang Haihuai (), Liu Mingyuan (; 1931–1996), Tang Liangde (; 1938–2010), Zhang Shao () and Song Guosheng ().
Liu Mingyuan (; 1931–1996) was born in
Tianjin
Tianjin is a direct-administered municipality in North China, northern China on the shore of the Bohai Sea. It is one of the National Central City, nine national central cities, with a total population of 13,866,009 inhabitants at the time of the ...
. He was known for his virtuosity on many instruments of the family, in particular the . His compositions and arrangements include (Henan Folk Tune) and (On Grassland) for
Zhonghu. For many years, he taught at the China Conservatory of Music in Beijing.
Tang Liangde (Cantonese: Tong Leung Tak; ; 1938–2010) was born in Shanghai into a famous Shanghainese musical family. He won the "Shanghai's Spring" competition and continued to be the soloist for the Chinese Film Orchestra in Beijing, his composition and solos can be heard throughout the ''Nixon to China'' documentary movie. Tang was the soloist and performed at the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, then went on to music broadcasting and education for the Hong Kong Government's Music Office making worldwide tours and was named Art Educator of the Year in 1991 by the Hong Kong Artist Guild.
Wang Guotong (; born 1939) was born in
Dalian
Dalian ( ) is a major sub-provincial port city in Liaoning province, People's Republic of China, and is Liaoning's second largest city (after the provincial capital Shenyang) and the third-most populous city of Northeast China (after Shenyang ...
, Liaoning. He studied with Jiang Fengzhi, Lan Yusong and Chen Zhenduo and, in 1960, graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. He performed the premiere of (Sanmen Gorge Rhapsody) composed by Liu Wenjin. In 1972, Wang became the soloist and later art director of the China Broadcasting Traditional Orchestra. He returned to the Central Conservatory of Music in 1983 as head of the Chinese music department. He has written many books and articles on playing and has performed in many countries. Wang also worked with the Beijing National Instruments Factory to further develop design.
Min Huifen (; 1945–2014) was born in
Yixing
Yixing () is a county-level city administered under the prefecture-level city of Wuxi in southern Jiangsu province, China, and is part of the Yangtze Delta, Yangtze River Delta. The city is known for its traditional Yixing ware, Yixing clay ware t ...
, Jiangsu. She first became known as the winner of the 1963 fourth Shanghai Spring Art Festival. She studied with Lu Xiutang and Wang Yi, and graduated from the
Shanghai Conservatory of Music in 1968, and became the soloist with the Shanghai Folk Orchestra. She was the undisputed master of for 50 years.
Song Fei(宋飞;1969-)Female, born in January 1969,
Han Chinese
The Han Chinese, alternatively the Han people, are an East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Greater China. With a global population of over 1.4 billion, the Han Chinese are the list of contemporary ethnic groups, world's la ...
, from
Tianjin
Tianjin is a direct-administered municipality in North China, northern China on the shore of the Bohai Sea. It is one of the National Central City, nine national central cities, with a total population of 13,866,009 inhabitants at the time of the ...
, member of the
Jiusan Society
The Jiusan Society () is one of the eight minor so-called "Democratic parties (China), democratic parties" in the China, People's Republic of China under the direction of the Chinese Communist Party.
The party's original name was "Democracy a ...
, doctoral and master's supervisor, professor.She has been engaged in teaching, performing and researching erhu and huqin for a long time. Song Fei has premiered more than 50 classic erhu works including he Zhu Diao(竹调);Cu Hun(楚魂);Yan Zhao Chun Chao(燕赵春潮);Ye Cao(野草);
Along the River During the Qingming Festival (; ) ;Meng Li Hua Kai(梦里花开).
See also
*
Dan nhi
*
Dotara
The ''dotara'' or ''dotar''
( ''dütüra'', দোতৰা ''dütora'', ; ''dotora''), (literally, “Of r ‘having’two strings”) is a two- stringed, plucked musical instrument from South Asia, with most contemporary models having four ...
*
Ektara
*
Haegeum
*
Huqin, family of traditional Chinese spike fiddles.
*
Khuuchir
*
Morin khuur
The ''morin khuur'' (), also known as the horsehead fiddle, is a traditional Mongolian bowed stringed instrument. It is one of the most important musical instruments of the Mongol people, and is considered a symbol of the nation of Mongolia. ...
*
Kokyū
*
Music of China
The music of China consists of many distinct traditions, often specifically originating with one of the country's various Ethnic groups in China, ethnic groups. It is produced within and without the country, involving either people of Chinese or ...
*
Rebab
''Rebab'' (, ''rabāba'', variously spelled ''rebap'', ''rubob'', ''rebeb'', ''rababa'', ''rabeba'', ''robab'', ''rubab'', ''rebob'', etc) is the name of several related string instruments that independently spread via Islamic trading rout ...
*
Lanna salo
*
String instruments
In musical instrument classification, string instruments, or chordophones, are musical instruments that produce sound from vibrating strings when a performer strums, plucks, strikes or sounds the strings in varying manners.
Musicians play some ...
*
Traditional Chinese musical instruments
References
Citations
Bibliography
* Stephen Jones (1995). ''Folk Music of China''. Oxford: Clarendon Press OUP.
* Terence Michael Liu (1988). "Development of the Chinese Two-stringed Bowed Lute ''Erhu'' Following the New Culture Movement (c. 1915–1985)". Ph.D. dissertation. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University.
* Jonathan Stock. "A Historical Account of the Chinese Two-Stringed Fiddle Erhu". ''Galpin Society Journal'', v. 46 (March 1993), pp. 83–113.
* Jonathan Stock (1996). ''Musical Creativity in Twentieth-Century China: Abing, His Music, and Its Changing Meanings''. Eastman Studies in Music. Rochester, New York: Rochester University Press.
* Yongde Wang (1995). ''Qing shao nian xue er hu'' (Young person's erhu study). Shanghai Music Publishing House.
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
{{Portal bar, Music, China
Chinese musical instruments
Continuous pitch instruments
Drumhead lutes
Huqin family instruments
Necked bowl lutes