''Epilobium'' is a

genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...

flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (). The term angiosperm is derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek words (; 'container, vessel') and (; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed with ...

s in the

family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...

Onagraceae The Onagraceae are a family of flowering plants known as the willowherb family or evening primrose family. They include about 650 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

. The genus has a worldwide distribution. It is most prevalent in the

subarctic The subarctic zone is a region in the Northern Hemisphere immediately south of the true Arctic, north of hemiboreal regions and covering much of Alaska, Canada, Iceland, the north of Fennoscandia, Northwestern Russia, Siberia, and the Cair ...

temperate In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ran ...

and

subantarctic The sub-Antarctic zone is a physiographic region in the Southern Hemisphere, located immediately north of the Antarctic region. This translates roughly to a latitude of between 46th parallel south, 46° and 60th parallel south, 60° south of t ...

regions, whereas in the

subtropics The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical and climate zones immediately to the north and south of the tropics. Geographically part of the temperate zones of both hemispheres, they cover the middle latitudes from to approximately ...

and

tropics The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the equator, where the sun may shine directly overhead. This contrasts with the temperate or polar regions of Earth, where the Sun can never be directly overhead. This is because of Earth's ax ...

''Epilobium'' species are restricted to the cool

montane Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures lapse rate, fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is ...

biome A biome () is a distinct geographical region with specific climate, vegetation, and animal life. It consists of a biological community that has formed in response to its physical environment and regional climate. In 1935, Tansley added the ...

s, such as the

New Guinea Highlands The New Guinea Highlands, also known as the Central Range or Central Cordillera, is a long chain of mountain ranges on the island of New Guinea, including the island's highest peak, Puncak Jaya, Indonesia, , the highest mountain in Oceania. The r ...

. The

taxonomy image:Hierarchical clustering diagram.png, 280px, Generalized scheme of taxonomy Taxonomy is a practice and science concerned with classification or categorization. Typically, there are two parts to it: the development of an underlying scheme o ...

of the genus has varied between different

botanist Botany, also called plant science, is the branch of natural science and biology studying plants, especially Plant anatomy, their anatomy, Plant taxonomy, taxonomy, and Plant ecology, ecology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who s ...

s, but the modern trend is to include the previously recognised genera ''Boisduvalia'', ''

Chamaenerion ''Chamaenerion'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Onagraceae (the evening primrose or willowherb family). It has sometimes been included in the genus ''Epilobium''. Members of the genus may be called willowherbs (along with ''Epilobiu ...

'' (previously ''Chamerion''), ''Pyrogennema'' and ''Zauschneria'' within ''Epilobium'' according to

Peter H. Raven Peter Hamilton Raven (born June 13, 1936) is an American botanist and environmentalist, notable as the longtime director, now President Emeritus, of the Missouri Botanical Garden. Early life On June 13, 1936, Raven was born in Shanghai, Chin ...

, who has extensively studied the willowherbs and merges the other segregate genera into ''Epilobium''. Fringed willowherb (''

Epilobium ciliatum ''Epilobium ciliatum'', known by the common names fringed willowherb, American willowherb, slender willow herb, and northern willow herb is a species of ''flowering plant'' in the willowherb family Onagraceae. This species is native to much of No ...

'') is likely a

cryptic species complex In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The taxa in the complex may be able to hybridize readily with each oth ...

; apparently these plants also commonly hybridize with their congeners. Most species are known by the common name willowherbs for their willow-like leaves. Those that were once separated in ''Boisduvalia'' are called spike-primroses or boisduvalias. Those ''Epilobium'' species previously placed in the ''Chamaenerion'' group are known as fireweeds.

Description

Epilobium canum fruits with comose seeds 2003-01-21

Epilobiums are mostly

herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition of ...

plants, either

annual Annual may refer to: *Annual publication, periodical publications appearing regularly once per year **Yearbook **Literary annual *Annual plant *Annual report *Annual giving *Annual, Morocco, a settlement in northeastern Morocco *Annuals (band), a ...

perennial In horticulture, the term perennial ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. It has thus been defined as a plant that lives more than 2 years. The term is also ...

; a few are

subshrub A subshrub (Latin ''suffrutex'') or undershrub is either a small shrub (e.g. prostrate shrubs) or a perennial that is largely herbaceous but slightly woody at the base (e.g. garden pink and florist's chrysanthemum). The term is often interch ...

s. The

leaves A leaf (: leaves) is a principal appendage of the stem of a vascular plant, usually borne laterally above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, stem, ...

are opposite or rarely whorled, simple and ovate to lanceolate in shape. The

flower Flowers, also known as blooms and blossoms, are the reproductive structures of flowering plants ( angiosperms). Typically, they are structured in four circular levels, called whorls, around the end of a stalk. These whorls include: calyx, m ...

s are

actinomorphic Floral symmetry describes whether, and how, a flower, in particular its perianth, can be divided into two or more identical or mirror-image parts. Uncommonly, flowers may have no axis of symmetry at all, typically because their parts are spirall ...

(radially symmetrical) with four petals that may be notched. These are usually smallish and pink in most species, but red, orange or yellow in a few. The

fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (angiosperms) that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propaga ...

is a slender cylindrical capsule containing numerous

seed In botany, a seed is a plant structure containing an embryo and stored nutrients in a protective coat called a ''testa''. More generally, the term "seed" means anything that can be Sowing, sown, which may include seed and husk or tuber. Seeds ...

s embedded in fine, soft silky fluff which disperses the seeds very effectively in the wind. The genus name derives from the Greek words "epi" meaning "upon" and "lobos" meaning "lobe", with reference to position of the petals above the ovary. A number of ''Epilobium'' species with slightly asymmetrical (

zygomorphic Floral symmetry describes whether, and how, a flower, in particular its perianth, can be divided into two or more identical or mirror-image parts. Uncommonly, flowers may have no axis of symmetry at all, typically because their parts are spir ...

) magenta flowers and alternate leaves are placed in a ''Chamaenerion'' group and are further separated by some authorities into a genus ''Chamerion''. However, ''Chamerion'' has not been universally accepted.

Habitat and ecology

Willowherbs ''sensu lato'' are typically very quick to carpet large swathes of ground and may become key or dominant species of local

ecosystem An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by Organism, organisms in interaction with their Biophysical environment, environment. The Biotic material, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and en ...

s. In the

United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...

, for example, rosebay willowherb (''

Chamaenerion angustifolium ''Chamaenerion angustifolium'' is a perennial herbaceous flowering plant in the willowherb family, Onagraceae. It is known in North America as fireweed and in Britain and Ireland as rosebay willowherb. It is also known by the synonyms ''Chameri ...

'') is widely found on mesotrophic soils dominated by false oat-grass (''

Arrhenatherum elatius ''Arrhenatherum elatius'' is a species of flowering plant in the grass family Poaceae, commonly known as false oat-grass, and also bulbous oat grass (subsp. ''bulbosum''), tall oat-grass, tall meadow oat, onion couch and tuber oat-grass. It is na ...

''), cock's-foot grass (''

Dactylis glomerata ''Dactylis glomerata'' is a species of flowering plant in the grass family Poaceae, known as cock's-foot,Interactive Flora of NW Europ''Dactylis glomerata'' (Cock's-foot)/ref> also colloquially as orchard grass, or cat grass (due to its populari ...

''), and red fescue (''

Festuca rubra ''Festuca rubra'' is a species of grass known by the common name red fescue, creeping red fescue or the rush-leaf fescue. It is widespread across much of the Northern Hemisphere and can tolerate many habitats and climates. It is best adapted to w ...

''), while great willowherb (''

Epilobium hirsutum ''Epilobium hirsutum'' is a flowering plant belonging to the willowherb genus '' Epilobium'' in the family Onagraceae. It is commonly known as the great willowherb, great hairy willowherb or hairy willowherb. Local names include codlins-and-cream ...

'') is found in mesotrophic grassland with stinging nettle (''

Urtica dioica ''Urtica dioica'', often known as common nettle, burn nettle, stinging nettle (although not all plants of this species sting) or nettle leaf, or just a nettle or stinger, is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant in the family Urticaceae. Or ...

''). These two willowherb species also dominate open habitat early in

ecological succession Ecological succession is the process of how species compositions change in an Community (ecology), ecological community over time. The two main categories of ecological succession are primary succession and secondary succession. Primary successi ...

, to the virtual exclusion of other plant life. Broad-leaved willowherb (''Epilobium montanum'') is found characteristically, though not abundantly, in the mesotrophic grasslands with meadowsweet (''Filipendula ulmaria'') and sometimes the uncommon Greek valerian (''Polemonium caeruleum''). Most willowherbs will not tolerate shade trees and thus are limited to more recently disturbed patches, yielding to other plants over time. Consequently, though the genus contains many pioneer plants, rather few of them are invasive weeds of major importance. ''Epilobium'' species are used as food plants by the caterpillars of certain Lepidoptera species, including:
Geometer moth, Geometridae * Grey pug (''Eupithecia subfuscata''), recorded on several species Noctuidae * Mouse moth (''Amphipyra tragopoginis''), recorded on several species * Small angle shades (''Euplexia lucipara''), recorded on several species * Phalaenoides glycinae, Australian grapevine moth (''Phalaenoides glycinae''), recorded on Epilobium ciliatum, fringed willowherb (''E. ciliatum'') Sphingidae * Deilephila elpenor, Elephant hawk-moth (''Deilephila elpenor''), recorded on several species * Deilephila porcellus, Small elephant hawk-moth (''Deilephila porcellus''), recorded on several species * Hyles lineata, White-lined sphinx (''Hyles lineata''), recorded on several species

Use by humans

The main use of ''Epilobium'' by humans is as a herbal supplement in the treatment of prostate, bladder (Urinary incontinence, incontinence) and hormone disorders. Many of the small willowherb species are nuisance weeds in gardens. Though few are regularly used as ornamental plants, the larger willowherbs may be attractive in ruderal locales. One of the most frequently recognized members of the genus is the Circumboreal Region, circumboreal fireweed (''E. angustifolium''), known as rosebay willowherb in the United Kingdom. It rapidly colonizes burnt ground; during the bombing of London in World War II many of the derelict bomb sites were soon covered with these plants, bringing a splash of colour to what was otherwise a very grim scene. It is the floral emblem of Yukon in Canada, Hedmark in Norway and Southern Ostrobothnia in Finland. Fireweed is used as a sweetener in north-western North America. It is put in candy, Fruit preserves, jellies, ice cream, syrup, and ''sxusem'' ("Indian ice cream"). In the late summer its flowers yield pollen and copious nectar which give a rich spicy honey. Its young leaves, roots, and shoots are edible (if somewhat bitter), and rich in provitamin A and vitamin C. The Dena'ina people, Dena’ina found them also useful as food supplement for dogs and applied sap from the stem to wounds, believing it to have antiinflammatory properties. Several researchers have studied this taxon. Heinrich Carl Haussknecht in the late 19th century and Peter H. Raven about a century later researched the phylogeny, systematics, and

of willowherbs. Peter Michaelis' studies of this genus paved the way for understanding of extranuclear inheritance in plants.

Species

The following species are recognised in the genus ''Epilobium'': Epilobiumbrachycarpum

*''Epilobium × abortivum'' *''Epilobium × aggregatum'' *''Epilobium aitchisonii'' *''Epilobium algidum'' *''Epilobium alpestre'' *''Epilobium alsinifolium'' – chickweed willowherb *''Epilobium alsinoides'' *''Epilobium × amphibolum'' *''Epilobium amurense'' *''Epilobium anagallidifolium'' – alpine willowherb, pimpernel willowherb *''Epilobium anatolicum'' *''Epilobium anglicum'' *''Epilobium angustifolium'' *''Epilobium angustum'' *''Epilobium arcticum'' – Arctic willowherb *''Epilobium × argillaceum'' *''Epilobium arvernense'' *''Epilobium × aschersonianum'' *''Epilobium astonii'' *''Epilobium atlanticum'' *''Epilobium australe'' *''Epilobium barbeyanum'' *''Epilobium billardiereanum'' – glabrous willowherb *''Epilobium blinii'' *''Epilobium × boissieri'' *''Epilobium × borbasianum'' *''Epilobium × brachiatum'' *''Epilobium brachycarpum'' – tall willowherb, tall annual willowherb, tall fireweed, panicled willowherb *''Epilobium brevifolium'' *''Epilobium brevipes'' *''Epilobium × brevipilum'' *''Epilobium brevisquamatum'' *''Epilobium × brunnatum'' *''Epilobium brunnescens'' – New Zealand willowherb *''Epilobium campestre'' – pygmy willowherb, smooth boisduvalia *''Epilobium canum'' – Zauschneria, California-fuchsia, hummingbird flower, hummingbird trumpet *''Epilobium capense'' *''Epilobium × celakovskyanum'' *''Epilobium × chateri'' *''Epilobium chionanthum'' *''Epilobium chitralense'' *''Epilobium chlorifolium'' *''

'' – fringed willowherb, American willowherb *''Epilobium clarkeanum'' *''Epilobium clavatum'' – talus willowherb, clavatefruit willowherb *''Epilobium cleistogamum'' – selfing willowherb *''Epilobium cockayneanum'' *''Epilobium colchicum'' *''Epilobium collinum'' *''Epilobium coloratum'' – purpleleaf willowherb *''Epilobium confertifolium'' *''Epilobium × confine'' *''Epilobium × confusilobum'' *''Epilobium confusum'' *''Epilobium conjungens'' *''Epilobium conspersum'' *''Epilobium × cornubiense'' *''Epilobium crassum'' *''Epilobium curtisiae'' *''Epilobium cylindricum'' *''Epilobium × dacicum'' *''Epilobium × dasycarpum'' *''Epilobium davuricum'' – Daurian willowherb *''Epilobium × decipiens'' *''Epilobium densiflorum'' – denseflower willowherb, dense spike-primrose, dense boisduvalia *''Epilobium densifolium'' *''Epilobium densum'' – downy willowherb, stiff spike-primrose *''Epilobium denticulatum'' *''Epilobium detznerianum'' *''Epilobium dodonaei'' *''Epilobium duriaei'' *''Epilobium elegans'' *''Epilobium × erroneum'' *''Epilobium × fallacinum'' *''Epilobium fangii'' *''Epilobium fastigiatoramosum'' *''Epilobium fauriei'' *''Epilobium × finitimum'' *''Epilobium fleischeri'' *''Epilobium × floridulum'' *''Epilobium forbesii'' *''Epilobium × fossicola'' *''Epilobium fragile'' *''Epilobium fugitivum'' *''Epilobium gemmascens'' *''Epilobium × gemmiferum'' *''Epilobium × gerstlaueri'' *''Epilobium glabellum'' – smooth spike-primrose *''Epilobium glaberrimum'' – glaucous willowherb *''Epilobium glaciale'' *''Epilobium × glanduligerum'' *''Epilobium glaucum'' *''Epilobium × goerzii'' *''Epilobium gouldii'' *''Epilobium gracilipes'' *''Epilobium × grenieri'' *''Epilobium griffithianum'' *''Epilobium gunnianum'' *''Epilobium × gutteanum'' *''Epilobium hallianum'' – glandular willowherb *''Epilobium × haussknechtianum'' *''Epilobium × haynaldianum'' *''Epilobium × hectori-leveilleanum'' *''Epilobium hectorii'' *''Epilobium × heterocaulon'' *''

'' – great willowherb, great hairy willowherb, hairy willowherb, codlins-and-cream, apple-pie, cherry-pie *''Epilobium hirtigerum'' *''Epilobium hohuanense'' *''Epilobium hooglandii'' *''Epilobium hornemannii'' – Hornemann's willowherb *''Epilobium howellii'' – Yuba Pass willowherb, subalpine fireweed *''Epilobium × huteri'' *''Epilobium indicum'' *''Epilobium insulare'' *''Epilobium × interjectum'' *''Epilobium × intersitum'' *''Epilobium × jinshaense'' *''Epilobium karsteniae'' *''Epilobium × keredjense'' *''Epilobium kermodei'' *''Epilobium keysseri'' *''Epilobium kingdonii'' *''Epilobium × kitcheneri'' *''Epilobium komarovianum'' – bronzy willowherb *''Epilobium komarovii'' *''Epilobium korshinskyi'' *''Epilobium × krausei'' *''Epilobium lactiflorum'' – milkflower willowherb, whiteflower willowherb *''Epilobium ladakhianum'' *''Epilobium laestadii'' *''Epilobium × lamotteanum'' *''Epilobium lanceolatum'' – spear-leaved willowherb *''Epilobium × langeanum'' *''Epilobium × laschianum'' *''Epilobium latifolium'' *''Epilobium laxum'' *''Epilobium leiophyllum'' *''Epilobium leptocarpum'' – slenderfruit willowherb *''Epilobium leptophyllum'' – bog willowherb, linear-leaved willowherb *''Epilobium × limosum'' *''Epilobium lipschitzii'' *''Epilobium luteum'' – yellow willowherb *''Epilobium macropus'' *''Epilobium margaretiae'' *''Epilobium × marshallianum'' *''Epilobium matthewsii'' *''Epilobium maysillesii'' *''Epilobium melanocaulon'' *''Epilobium × mentiens'' *''Epilobium microphyllum'' *''Epilobium minutiflorum'' *''Epilobium minutum'' – chaparral willowherb, desert willowherb, smallflower willowherb *''Epilobium mirabile'' – Olympic Mountain willowherb *''Epilobium × montaniforme'' *''Epilobium montanum'' – broad-leaved willowherb *''Epilobium nanhualpinum'' *''Epilobium nankotaizanense'' – Nankotaizan willowherb *''Epilobium × neogradiense'' *''Epilobium nerterioides'' *''Epilobium nevadense'' – Nevada willowherb *''Epilobium nivale'' *''Epilobium nivium'' – Snow Mountain willowherb *''Epilobium × novae-civitatis'' *''Epilobium nummulariifolium'' *''Epilobium nutans'' *''Epilobium × nutantiflorum'' *''Epilobium obcordatum'' – rockfringe willowherb *''Epilobium × obscurescens'' *''Epilobium obscurum'' – dwarf willowherb, short-fruited willowherb *''Epilobium oreganum'' – Grants Pass willowherb, Oregon fireweed *''Epilobium oregonense'' – Oregon willowherb *''Epilobium × palatinum'' *''Epilobium pallidiflorum'' *''Epilobium pallidum'' – largeflower spike-primrose *''Epilobium palustre'' – marsh willowherb *''Epilobium pannosum'' *''Epilobium parviflorum'' – small-flowered willowherb, hoary willowherb *''Epilobium pedicellare'' *''Epilobium pedunculare'' – rockery willowherb *''Epilobium pengii'' *''Epilobium × percollinum'' *''Epilobium pernitens'' *''Epilobium perpusillum'' *''Epilobium × persicinum'' *''Epilobium petraeum'' *''Epilobium pictum'' *''Epilobium platystigmatosum'' *''Epilobium ponticum'' *''Epilobium porphyrium'' *''Epilobium × prionophylloides'' *''Epilobium prostratum'' *''Epilobium pseudorubescens'' *''Epilobium × pseudotrigonum'' *''Epilobium psilotum'' *''Epilobium pubens'' *''Epilobium puberulum'' *''Epilobium × pulchrum'' *''Epilobium purpuratum'' *''Epilobium × purpureum'' *''Epilobium pycnostachyum'' *''Epilobium pyrricholophum'' *''Epilobium ravenii'' – leafy willowherb, California willowherb *''Epilobium rechingeri'' *''Epilobium × reedii'' *''Epilobium rhynchospermum'' *''Epilobium rigidum'' – stiff willowherb, Siskiyou Mountains willowherb *''Epilobium × rivulare'' *''Epilobium × rivulicola'' *''Epilobium roseum'' – pale willowherb *''Epilobium rostratum'' *''Epilobium rotundifolium'' *''Epilobium royleanum'' *''Epilobium rubromarginatum'' *''Epilobium salignum'' *''Epilobium sarmentaceum'' *''Epilobium saximontanum'' – Rocky Mountain willowherb *''Epilobium × schmidtianum'' *''Epilobium × schulzeanum'' *''Epilobium semiamplexicaule'' *''Epilobium septentrionale'' – northern willowherb, Humboldt County fuchsia *''Epilobium × sericeum'' *''Epilobium sikkimense'' *''Epilobium × similatum'' *''Epilobium × simulatum'' *''Epilobium sinense'' *''Epilobium siskiyouense'' – Siskiyou willowherb, Siskiyou fireweed *''Epilobium smithii'' *''Epilobium speciosum'' *''Epilobium spitianum'' *''Epilobium staintonii'' *''Epilobium stereophyllum'' *''Epilobium stevenii'' *''Epilobium stracheyanum'' *''Epilobium subalgidum'' *''Epilobium subcoriaceum'' *''Epilobium subdentatum'' *''Epilobium suffruticosum'' – shrubby willowherb *''Epilobium × surreyanum'' *''Epilobium taiwanianum'' *''Epilobium tasmanicum'' *''Epilobium tetragonum'' – square-stemmed willowherb *''Epilobium thermophilum'' *''Epilobium × thuringiacum'' *''Epilobium tianschanicum'' *''Epilobium tibetanum'' *''Epilobium tonkinense'' *''Epilobium torreyi'' – Torrey's willowherb, brook spike-primrose *''Epilobium × treleaseanum'' *''Epilobium trichophyllum'' *''Epilobium tulinianum'' *''Epilobium turkestanicum'' *''Epilobium × udicola'' *''Epilobium × uechtritzianum'' *''Epilobium ulleungensis'' *''Epilobium vernicosum'' *''Epilobium vernonicum'' *''Epilobium verticillatum'' *''Epilobium × vicinum'' *''Epilobium wallichianum'' *''Epilobium × waterfallii'' *''Epilobium wattianum'' *''Epilobium williamsii'' *''Epilobium willisii'' *''Epilobium wilsonii'' *''Epilobium × winkleri'' *''Epilobium × wisconsinense'' – Wisconsin willowherb

Formerly placed here

* ''Stylidium tenellum'' (as ''E. tonkinense'') It is possible to distinguish between leaves of different ''Epilobium'' species using high-accuracy FT-IR method based on attenuated total reflection (ATR) without time-consuming preparation.Krajšek, S., Buh, P., Zega, A., Kreft, S. (2008). Identification of herbarium whole-leaf samples of ''Epilobium'' species by ATR-IR spectroscopy. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 5:310-31
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cbdv.200890028/abstract;jsessionid=46F30B7C6B30DADFBD57A4789993E047.f01t02
/ref>

Footnotes

References

* Bleeker, Walter; Schmitz, Ulf & Ristow, Michael (2007): Interspecific hybridisation between alien and native plant species in Germany and its consequences for native biodiversity. ''Biological Conservation'' 137 (2): 248–253. (HTML abstract, appendix reserved for subscribers) * Steenkamp, V; Gouws, M.C; Gulumian, M; Elgorashi, E.E. & van Stade, J. (2006): Studies on antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of herbal remedies used in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostatitis. ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'' 103 (1): 71–75.
PDF fulltext
* * * Wagner, W.L. & Hoch, P.C. [2009b]: Evening Primrose Family website &ndash
''Epilobium''
Retrieved 2009-JAN-26. {{Authority control Epilobium, Onagraceae genera Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus