''Enterobacter'' is a genus of common

Gram-negative Gram-negative bacteria are bacteria that, unlike gram-positive bacteria, do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method of bacterial differentiation. Their defining characteristic is that their cell envelope consists ...

, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming

bacteria Bacteria (; : bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one Cell (biology), biological cell. They constitute a large domain (biology), domain of Prokaryote, prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micr ...

of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Cultures are found in soil, water, sewage, feces and gut environments. It is the type genus of the order

Enterobacterales Enterobacterales is an order of Gram-negative bacteria, Gram-negative, non-spore forming, Facultative anaerobic organism, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria with the class Gammaproteobacteria. The type genus of this order is ''Enterob ...

. Several strains of these bacteria are

pathogen In biology, a pathogen (, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of"), in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a Germ theory of d ...

ic and cause opportunistic infections in

immunocompromised Immunodeficiency, also known as immunocompromise, is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious diseases and cancer is compromised or entirely absent. Most cases are acquired ("secondary") due to extrinsic factors that affe ...

(usually hospitalized) hosts and in those who are on

mechanical ventilation Mechanical ventilation or assisted ventilation is the Medicine, medical term for using a ventilator, ventilator machine to fully or partially provide artificial ventilation. Mechanical ventilation helps move air into and out of the lungs, wit ...

. The urinary and respiratory tracts are the most common sites of

infection An infection is the invasion of tissue (biology), tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host (biology), host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmis ...

. The genus ''Enterobacter'' is a member of the coliform group of bacteria. It does not belong to the fecal coliforms (or thermotolerant coliforms) group of bacteria, unlike ''

Escherichia coli ''Escherichia coli'' ( )Wells, J. C. (2000) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Harlow ngland Pearson Education Ltd. is a gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus '' Escherichia'' that is commonly fo ...

'', because it is incapable of growth at 44.5 °C in the presence of bile salts. Some of them show quorum sensing properties. One clinically important species from this genus is '' E. cloacae''. Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the

International Space Station The International Space Station (ISS) is a large space station that was Assembly of the International Space Station, assembled and is maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies and their contractors: NASA (United ...

(ISS) of five '' Enterobacter bugandensis'' bacterial strains, none pathogenic to humans, that

microorganism A microorganism, or microbe, is an organism of microscopic scale, microscopic size, which may exist in its unicellular organism, single-celled form or as a Colony (biology)#Microbial colonies, colony of cells. The possible existence of unseen ...

s on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for the astronauts.

Biochemical characteristics

The genus ''Enterobacter'' ferments lactose with gas production during a 48-hour incubation at 35-37 °C in the presence of bile salts and detergents. It is oxidase-negative, indole-negative, and urease-variable.Russo Thomas A, Johnson James R, "Chapter 143. Diseases Caused by Gram-Negative Enteric Bacilli" (Chapter). Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Jameson JL, Loscalzo J: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 17e

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Virulent characteristics

For Enterobacter species, the flagella is used for adhesion,

biofilm A biofilm is a Syntrophy, syntrophic Microbial consortium, community of microorganisms in which cell (biology), cells cell adhesion, stick to each other and often also to a surface. These adherent cells become embedded within a slimy ext ...

formation, and protein export as well as motility. Between the strains, the microbial genus produces endotoxins unique to the species. As a gram negative bacterium, the lipopolysaccharide capsule helps to avoid phagocytosis and can initiate inflammatory response.

Symptoms

In patients, pathogenic strains were found in the sputum, blood, wounds, and stool. Enterobacter is associated with common nosocomial infections including respiratory, endocarditis, bacteremia, urinary tract infections, osteomyelitis, among others. Enterobacter bacteremia presents as fever but can progress to SIRS and shock. For Enterobacter pneumonia, symptoms include coughing and shortness of breath.

Treatment

Treatment is dependent on local trends of

antibiotic resistance Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from antimicrobials, which are drugs used to treat infections. This resistance affects all classes of microbes, including bacteria (antibiotic resis ...

. '' Enterobacter huaxiensis'' and '' Enterobacter chuandaensis'' are two recently discovered species that exhibit especially antibiotic resistant characteristics. Cefepime, a fourth-generation

cephalosporin The cephalosporins (sg. ) are a class of β-lactam antibiotics originally derived from the fungus '' Acremonium'', which was previously known as ''Cephalosporium''. Together with cephamycins, they constitute a subgroup of β-lactam antibio ...

from the β-Lactam antibiotic class. Imipenem (a

carbapenem Carbapenems are a class of very effective antibiotic agents most commonly used for treatment of severe bacterial infections. This class of antibiotics is usually reserved for known or suspected multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial infections. Si ...

) is often the antibiotic of choice. Aminoglycosides such as

amikacin Amikacin is an antibiotic medication used for a number of bacterial infections. This includes joint infections, intra-abdominal infections, meningitis, pneumonia, sepsis, and urinary tract infections. It is also used for the treatment of ...

have been found to be very effective, as well. Quinolones can be an effective alternative.

Linked to obesity

A 2012 study has shown that the presence of '' Enterobacter cloacae'' B29 in the gut of a morbidly obese individual may have contributed to the patient's

obesity Obesity is a medical condition, considered by multiple organizations to be a disease, in which excess Adipose tissue, body fat has accumulated to such an extent that it can potentially have negative effects on health. People are classifi ...

. Reduction of the bacterial load within the patient's gut, from 35% ''E. cloacae'' B29 to non-detectable levels, was associated with a parallel reduction in endotoxin load in the patient and a concomitant, significant reduction in weight. Furthermore, the same bacterial strain, isolated from the patient, induced

and insulin resistance in germfree C57BL/6J mice that were being fed a high-fat diet. The study concludes that ''E. cloacae'' B29 may contribute to

in its human hosts through an endotoxin-induced,

inflammation Inflammation (from ) is part of the biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. The five cardinal signs are heat, pain, redness, swelling, and loss of function (Latin ''calor'', '' ...

-mediated mechanism.

References

Davin-Regli, A., Lavigne, J. P., & Pagès, J. M. (2019). Enterobacter spp.: Update on Taxonomy, Clinical Aspects, and Emerging Antimicrobial Resistance. Clinical microbiology reviews, 32(4), e00002-19. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00002-19

External links

*
''Enterobacter'' at Bac''Dive'' - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
{{Authority control Enterobacteriaceae Gram-negative bacteria Pathogenic bacteria Bacteria genera