Enea Piccolomini
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Pope Pius II (, ), born Enea Silvio Bartolomeo Piccolomini (; 18 October 1405 – 14 August 1464), was head of the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
and ruler of the
Papal States The Papal States ( ; ; ), officially the State of the Church, were a conglomeration of territories on the Italian peninsula under the direct sovereign rule of the pope from 756 to 1870. They were among the major states of Italy from the 8th c ...
from 19 August 1458 to his death in 1464. Aeneas Silvius was an author, diplomat, and orator, and private secretary of
Antipope Felix V Amadeus VIII (4 September 1383 – 7 January 1451), nicknamed the Peaceful, was Count of Savoy from 1391 to 1416 and Duke of Savoy from 1416 to 1440. He was a claimant to the papacy from 1439 to 1449 as Felix VWhen numbering of the popes began ...
and then the Emperor Frederick III, and then
Pope Eugenius IV Pope Eugene IV (; ; 1383 – 23 February 1447), born Gabriele Condulmer, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 11 March 1431 to his death, in February 1447. Condulmer was a Venetian, and a nephew of Pope Gregory XII ...
. He participated in the
Council of Basel The Council of Florence is the seventeenth ecumenical council recognized by the Catholic Church, held between 1431 and 1445. It was convened in territories under the Holy Roman Empire. Italy became a venue of a Catholic ecumenical council aft ...
, but left it in 1443 to follow Frederick, whom he reconciled to the Roman obedience. He became Bishop of Trieste in 1447, Bishop of Siena in 1450, and a cardinal in 1456. He was a Renaissance humanist with an international reputation. Aeneas Silvius' longest and most enduring work is the story of his life, the ''Commentaries'', which was the first autobiography of a pope to have been published. It appeared posthumously, in 1584, 120 years after his death.


Early life

Aeneas was born in Corsignano in
Sienese Siena ( , ; traditionally spelled Sienna in English; ) is a city in Tuscany, in central Italy, and the capital of the province of Siena. It is the twelfth most populated city in the region by number of inhabitants, with a population of 52,991 ...
territory of a noble but impoverished family. His father Silvio was a soldier and member of the
House of Piccolomini The House of Piccolomini (pronounced ) is the name of an Italian noble family, Patricians of Siena, who were prominent from the beginning of the 13th century until the 18th century. The family achieved the recognized titles of Pope of the Catho ...
, and his mother was Vittoria Forteguerri, who had eighteen children including several twins, though no more than ten were alive at one time. The plague (''iniqua lues'') finally left him with only two sisters, Laudamia and Catherina. He worked with his father in the fields for some years. In 1423, at the age of 18, he left to study at the university of
Siena Siena ( , ; traditionally spelled Sienna in English; ) is a city in Tuscany, in central Italy, and the capital of the province of Siena. It is the twelfth most populated city in the region by number of inhabitants, with a population of 52,991 ...
, where he first followed the humanities curriculum, and then that of civil law. At Siena he studied under the Augustinian Andreas of Milan, the noted historian. His preceptor and professor of civil law was Antonio de Rosellis. He also studied law under Mariano Sozzini. He then attended the
university of Florence The University of Florence ( Italian: ''Università degli Studi di Firenze'') (in acronym UNIFI) is an Italian public research university located in Florence, Italy. It comprises 12 schools and has around 50,000 students enrolled. History The f ...
where he studied under
Francesco Filelfo Francesco Filelfo (; 25 July 1398 – 31 July 1481) was an Italian Renaissance humanism, Renaissance humanist and author of the philosophic dialogue ''On Exile''. Biography Filelfo was born at Tolentino, in the March of Ancona. He is believed t ...
, and where he became friends with
Poggio Bracciolini Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini (; 11 February 1380 – 30 October 1459), usually referred to simply as Poggio Bracciolini, was an Italian scholar and an early Renaissance humanism, Renaissance humanist. He is noted for rediscovering and recove ...
,
Leonardo Bruni Leonardo Bruni or Leonardo Aretino ( – March 9, 1444) was an Italian humanist, historian and statesman, often recognized as the most important humanist historian of the early Renaissance. He has been called the first modern historian. He was t ...
, and
Guarino da Verona Guarino Veronese or Guarino da Verona (1374 – 14 December 1460) was an Italian classical scholar, humanist, and translator of ancient Greek texts during the Renaissance. In the republics of Florence and Venice he studied under Manuel Chryso ...
. He settled in Siena as a teacher.


Basel

In 1431 he accepted the post of secretary to
Domenico Capranica Domenico Capranica (1400 – 14 July 1458) was an Italian theologian, canonist, statesman, and cardinal. Life Cardinal Capranica was born in Capranica Prenestina. His younger brother, Angelo, also became a cardinal. After studies in canon ...
,
bishop of Fermo The Archdiocese of Fermo () is a Latin archdiocese of the Catholic Church in northern Italy, with its seat in the city of Fermo, Marche. It was established as the Diocese of Fermo in the 3rd century, and elevated to an archdiocese by Pope Sixtus ...
, then on his way to the
Council of Basel The Council of Florence is the seventeenth ecumenical council recognized by the Catholic Church, held between 1431 and 1445. It was convened in territories under the Holy Roman Empire. Italy became a venue of a Catholic ecumenical council aft ...
. Capranica was protesting against the new
Pope Eugene IV Pope Eugene IV (; ; 1383 – 23 February 1447), born Gabriele Condulmer, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 11 March 1431 to his death, in February 1447. Condulmer was a Republic of Venice, Venetian, and a nephew ...
's refusal of a
cardinalate The College of Cardinals (), also called the Sacred College of Cardinals, is the body of all cardinals of the Catholic Church. there are cardinals, of whom are eligible to vote in a conclave to elect a new pope. Appointed by the pope, ...
for him, which had been designated by
Pope Martin V Pope Martin V (; ; January/February 1369 – 20 February 1431), born Oddone Colonna, was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 11 November 1417 to his death in February 1431. His election effectively ended the We ...
. Arriving at
Basel Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle ( ), ; ; ; . is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine (at the transition from the High Rhine, High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's List of cities in Switzerland, third-most-populo ...
after enduring a stormy voyage to
Genoa Genoa ( ; ; ) is a city in and the capital of the Italian region of Liguria, and the sixth-largest city in Italy. As of 2025, 563,947 people live within the city's administrative limits. While its metropolitan city has 818,651 inhabitan ...
and then a trip across the
Alps The Alps () are some of the highest and most extensive mountain ranges in Europe, stretching approximately across eight Alpine countries (from west to east): Monaco, France, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria and Slovenia. ...
, he successively served Capranica, who ran out of money, and then other masters. In 1435, he was sent by Cardinal Niccolò Albergati, Eugenius IV's legate at the council, on a secret mission to
Scotland Scotland is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It contains nearly one-third of the United Kingdom's land area, consisting of the northern part of the island of Great Britain and more than 790 adjac ...
, the object of which is variously related even by himself. He visited England as well as Scotland, underwent many perils and vicissitudes in both countries and left an account of each. The journey to Scotland proved so tempestuous that Piccolomini swore that he would walk barefoot to the nearest shrine of Our Lady from their landing port. This proved to be
Dunbar Dunbar () is a town on the North Sea coast in East Lothian in the south-east of Scotland, approximately east of Edinburgh and from the Anglo–Scottish border, English border north of Berwick-upon-Tweed. Dunbar is a former royal burgh, and ...
; the nearest shrine was distant at
Whitekirk Whitekirk is a small settlement in East Lothian, Scotland. Together with the nearby settlement of Tyninghame, it gives its name to the parish of Whitekirk and Tyninghame. Whitekirk Whitekirk is from North Berwick, from Dunbar and east of Ed ...
. The journey through the ice and snow left Aeneas afflicted with pain in his legs for the rest of his life. Only when he arrived at
Newcastle Newcastle usually refers to: *Newcastle upon Tyne, a city and metropolitan borough in Tyne and Wear, England, United Kingdom *Newcastle-under-Lyme, a town in Staffordshire, England, United Kingdom *Newcastle, New South Wales, a metropolitan area ...
did he feel that he had returned to "a civilised part of the world and the inhabitable face of the Earth", Scotland and the far north of England being "wild, bare and never visited by the sun in winter". In Scotland, he fathered a child but it died. Upon his return to Basel, Aeneas again served from 1436 to 1438 as secretary of Cardinal Domenico Capranica. He actively supported the council in its conflict with the Pope, and, although still a layman, eventually obtained a share in the direction of its affairs. He gave a speech advocating the choice of Pavia as the site of a meeting between council members and the Greek delegation, to discuss church union, which caught the attention of the duke of Milan, as he had hoped. The archbishop of Milan named him Provost of the church of S. Lorenzo in Milan, even though he had not been elected to the post by the chapter of the church and was still a layman. The Council granted him a dispensation, despite their policy against such dispensations, which they considered a feature of papal corruption. But when Aeneas was sent on a diplomatic mission to Vienna in 1438, it was reported that he had died; and the duke of Milan, who had abandoned the council and returned to Pope Eugenius' side, gave Aeneas' provostship to another candidate. In recompense, the Council appointed him a canon in the cathedral Chapter of Trent. He refused the offer of the
diaconate A deacon is a member of the diaconate, an office in Christian churches that is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. Major Christian denominations, such as the Catholi ...
, shunning the ecclesiastical state because of the obligation of sexual continence which it imposed. Even the offer to become one of the electors of a successor to
Pope Eugene IV Pope Eugene IV (; ; 1383 – 23 February 1447), born Gabriele Condulmer, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 11 March 1431 to his death, in February 1447. Condulmer was a Republic of Venice, Venetian, and a nephew ...
was not enough for him to overcome his reluctance. He supported the creation of the
Antipope Felix V Amadeus VIII (4 September 1383 – 7 January 1451), nicknamed the Peaceful, was Count of Savoy from 1391 to 1416 and Duke of Savoy from 1416 to 1440. He was a claimant to the papacy from 1439 to 1449 as Felix VWhen numbering of the popes began ...
(Amadeus, Duke of Savoy) in November 1439, and participated in his coronation. In 1440, he composed a work in defense of the authority of the general council of Basel, the ''Libellus dialogorum de generalis concilii auctoritate et gestis Basileensium''. Aeneas then was sent to
Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...
, where he fathered a child, a son, with a Breton woman called Elizabeth. The baby died 14 months later. Piccolomini served briefly as secretary to Pope Felix, and in 1442 was sent as envoy to the Diet of Frankfurt. On 27 July 1442, in Frankfurt, Frederick III, King of the Romans celebrated him as Poet Laureate, and offered him a position at court as his secretary. In January 1443, Aeneas resigned as secretary of Felix V, and was appointed secretary and protonotary in the imperial chancellery. There he obtained the patronage of the emperor's chancellor, Kaspar Schlick. Some identify the love adventure that Aeneas related in his romance ''
The Tale of Two Lovers ''The Tale of Two Lovers'' () (1444) is a novel by Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, the future Pope Pius II. It is one of the earliest examples of an epistolary novel, full of erotic imagery. The first printed edition was published by Ulrich Zell in ...
'' (1444) with an escapade of the chancellor. Of his activities at this period in his life,
Ferdinand Gregorovius Ferdinand Gregorovius (; 19 January 1821 – 1 May 1891) was a German historian who specialized in the medieval history of Rome. Biography Gregorovius was the son of Neidenburg district justice council Ferdinand Timotheus Gregorovius and his wi ...
, the historian of medieval Rome, wrote, "Versed in the affairs of the Empire and the Roman Curia, in which occupations he incessantly strove to acquire benefices that should raise him out of poverty, Piccolomini was not inspired by any ardent longing for virtue, nor was he stirred by the sublime genius of an exalted nature. There was nothing great in him. Endowed with fascinating gifts, this man of brilliant parts possessed no enthusiasms. We cannot even say that he pursued any aim beyond that of his own advantage." Aeneas' character had hitherto been that of a man of the world with no strictness in morals or consistency in politics. Being sent on a mission to Rome in 1445, with the ostensible object of inducing Pope Eugene to convoke a new council, he was absolved from ecclesiastical
censure A censure is an expression of strong disapproval or harsh criticism. In parliamentary procedure, it is a debatable main motion that could be adopted by a majority vote. Among the forms that it can take are a stern rebuke by a legislature, a sp ...
s and returned to
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
under an engagement to assist the Pope. This he did most effectually by the diplomatic dexterity with which he smoothed away differences between the papal court of Rome and the German imperial electors. He played a leading role in concluding a compromise in 1447 by which the dying Pope Eugenius accepted the reconciliation tendered by the German princes. The documents were signed on 5 February and 7 February 1447. As a result, the council and the antipope were left without support.


Bishop

He was ordained a priest in Vienna on 4 March 1446. Pope Eugenius died on 23 February 1447, and the conclave to choose his successor lasted from 4 to 6 March 1447. Aeneas Sylvius was one of the four ambassadors chosen to be the guardians of the conclave. The new pope, Tommaso Parentucelli, chose the name
Nicholas V Pope Nicholas V (; ; 15 November 1397 – 24 March 1455), born Tommaso Parentucelli, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 6 March 1447 until his death in March 1455. Pope Eugene IV made him a cardinal in 1446 afte ...
, and immediately confirmed Aeneas in his posts of papal subdeacon and secretary, and appointed him to carry the papal cross at his coronation. One of the first acts of
Pope Nicholas Pope Nicholas could refer to: *Pope Nicholas I (saint; 858–867) *Pope Nicholas II (1059–1061) *Pope Nicholas III (1277–1280) *Pope Nicholas IV (1288–1292) ** ''Antipope Nicholas V'' (1328–1330) *Pope Nicholas V (1447–1455) See also * Ni ...
was to appoint Aeneas
Bishop of Trieste The Diocese of Trieste () is a Latin diocese of the Catholic Church in the Triveneto. It has existed since no later than 524, and in its current form since 1977. The bishop's seat is in the Cathedral Basilica of Saint Justus Martyr. It is a suffr ...
on 17 April 1447. On 13 August 1447, at Cologne, Bishop Aeneas wrote the first ''Epistola retractationis, ad Magistr. Jordanum ''. Pope Nicholas transferred him to the diocese of Siena on 23 September 1450. In 1450, Aeneas was sent as ambassador by Emperor Frederick III to negotiate his marriage with Princess Eleonore of Portugal. In 1451, he undertook a mission to
Bohemia Bohemia ( ; ; ) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic. In a narrow, geographic sense, it roughly encompasses the territories of present-day Czechia that fall within the Elbe River's drainage basin, but historic ...
and concluded a satisfactory arrangement with the
Hussite file:Hussitenkriege.tif, upright=1.2, Battle between Hussites (left) and Crusades#Campaigns against heretics and schismatics, Catholic crusaders in the 15th century file:The Bohemian Realm during the Hussite Wars.png, upright=1.2, The Lands of the ...
leader
George of Poděbrady George of Kunštát and Poděbrady (23 April 1420 – 22 March 1471), also known as Poděbrad or Podiebrad (; ), was the sixteenth King of Bohemia, who ruled in 1458–1471. He was a leader of the Hussites, but moderate and tolerant toward the ...
. In 1452 he accompanied Frederick to Rome, where Frederick wedded Eleanor and was crowned emperor by the pope. At the coronation, speaking in the name of the emperor, Aeneas repudiated the conciliar theory, holding that the pope and his cardinals were the best council. Bishop Aeneas Sylvius was a delegate of Frederick III at the Diet of Ratisbon in February 1454. In August 1455, Aeneas again travelled to Rome on an embassy which included Johann Hinderbach to proffer the obedience of Germany to the new pope,
Calixtus III Pope Callixtus III (, , ; 31 December 1378 – 6 August 1458), born Alonso de Borja (), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 April 1455 to his death, in August 1458. Borgia spent his early career as a professor ...
. The ceremony took place on 12 August in a public consistory. As instructed, the envoys pressed the pope for a war against the Turks, which pleased Calixtus, who was of the same mind. He brought strong recommendations from Frederick and Ladislaus V of Hungary (also King of Bohemia) for the nomination of Aeneas to the cardinalate, but delays arose from the Pope's resolution to promote his own nephews first, which he did on 17 September 1456. Finally, on 17 December 1456, he was named a cardinal, and next day he was assigned the
titular church In the Catholic Church, a titular church () is a Churches in Rome, church in Rome that is assigned to a member of the Holy orders in the Catholic Church, clergy who is created a Cardinal (Catholic Church), cardinal. These are Catholic churches in ...
of
Santa Sabina The Basilica of Saint Sabina (, ) is a historic church on the Aventine Hill in Rome, Italy. It is a titular minor basilica and mother church of the Roman Catholic Order of Preachers, better known as the Dominicans. Santa Sabina is the oldest ex ...
on the Aventine. He was allowed to keep the diocese of Siena. He also acquired the bishopric of
Warmia Warmia ( ; Latin: ''Varmia'', ''Warmia''; ; Warmian subdialect, Warmian: ''Warńija''; Old Prussian language, Old Prussian: ''Wārmi'') is both a historical and an ethnographic region in northern Poland, forming part of historical Prussia (reg ...
(Ermel and, Prussia; now in Poland) on 12 August 1457.


Election to papacy

Calixtus III died on 6 August 1458. The leading candidate was Cardinal Domenico Capranica, but he died on 14 August, during the ''Novendiales''. The ambassador of the Duke of Milan wrote on 31 July that Cardinal Juan de Torquemada and Cardinal
Filippo Calandrini Filippo Calandrini (1403 – 18 July 1476) was an Italian Roman Catholic cardinal and half-brother of Pope Nicholas V. Biography He was born in 1403 in Genoese Sarzana (now in the region of Liguria), a town located in ancient Lunigiana, a key ...
, the half-brother of
Pope Nicholas V Pope Nicholas V (; ; 15 November 1397 – 24 March 1455), born Tommaso Parentucelli, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 6 March 1447 until his death in March 1455. Pope Eugene IV made him a Cardinal (Catholic Chu ...
, were also candidates, and he thought that Calandrini might win.Pastor, p. 7. Aeneas and his friend Cardinal Calandrini of Bologna immediately headed from Viterbo to Rome, and when they reached the gate of the city, they were met by a friendly assembly of courtiers and common people, who shouted that one or the other of them would be made pope. On the evening of the death of Cardinal Capranica, the Milanese ambassador indicated it would be possible to carry the election of Piccolomini, who was being supported by the king of Naples. On 16 August, the cardinals entered into a
papal conclave A conclave is a gathering of the College of Cardinals convened to appoint the pope of the Catholic Church. Catholics consider the pope to be the apostolic successor of Saint Peter and the earthly head of the Catholic Church. Concerns around ...
. Eighteen cardinals took part. The Italian cardinals were outnumbered by the foreigners. According to Aeneas' account, the wealthy cardinal
Guillaume d'Estouteville Guillaume d'Estouteville (c. 1412–1483) was a French aristocrat of royal blood who became a leading bishop (Catholic Church), bishop and cardinal (Catholic Church), cardinal. He held a number of Church offices simultaneously. He conducted th ...
, Archbishop of
Rouen Rouen (, ; or ) is a city on the River Seine, in northwestern France. It is in the prefecture of Regions of France, region of Normandy (administrative region), Normandy and the Departments of France, department of Seine-Maritime. Formerly one ...
, though a Frenchman and a blood cousin of the king of France, seemed certain to be elected. On 18 August, the first scrutiny took place; Aeneas and Calandrini each received 5 votes, while no one else received more than three. Whether out of trickery or out of hatred, no cardinal gave a vote for d'Estouteville. The results contradicted the expectations. D'Estouteville then set out to frustrate the ambitions of Aeneas. The second ballot took place on 19 August; the results gave Piccolomini 9 votes, and D'Estouteville 6. After intense intrigue among the cardinals, including a private meeting of the Italian cardinals, who were urged by Cardinal Barbo of Venice to choose the Italian Piccolomini over the French d'Estouteville, Aeneas was able to secure enough votes for his candidacy after the second ballot at the ''accessio'', to be elected with 12 votes. All 18 cardinals then ratified the election. He was crowned Pope on the front steps of
St. Peter's Basilica The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican (), or simply St. Peter's Basilica (; ), is a church of the Italian High Renaissance located in Vatican City, an independent microstate enclaved within the city of Rome, Italy. It was initiall ...
on 3 September 1458 by the Protodeacon, Cardinal Prospero Colonna.


Papal policies and initiatives

From the first day of his papacy, Pius' greatest priority was freeing Europe from the threat of the Turks, through a great crusade. He had also been preparing a bull, which in the event he never published, outlining his plans for a reform of the Roman Curia.


Congress at Mantua

After allying himself with
Ferdinand Ferdinand is a Germanic name composed of the elements "journey, travel", Proto-Germanic , abstract noun from root "to fare, travel" (PIE , "to lead, pass over"), and "courage" or "ready, prepared" related to Old High German "to risk, ventu ...
(Ferrante), the
Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and ; ) is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces of Spain, ...
ese claimant to the throne of Naples, in opposition to the French House of Anjou, his next important act was to convene a congress of the representatives of Christian princes at
Mantua Mantua ( ; ; Lombard language, Lombard and ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Italian region of Lombardy, and capital of the Province of Mantua, eponymous province. In 2016, Mantua was designated as the "Italian Capital of Culture". In 2 ...
for joint action against the
Turks Turk or Turks may refer to: Communities and ethnic groups * Turkish people, or the Turks, a Turkic ethnic group and nation * Turkish citizen, a citizen of the Republic of Turkey * Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups who speak Turkic lang ...
. In anticipation of his departure for Mantua, Pius issued the bull "Cum Concedente Deo" on 5 January 1459, in which he considered the possibility of the pope dying outside Rome; he ordered that the conclave to elect his successor should take place only in Rome, contrary to previous practice. On 11 January 1459 Pope Pius appointed Cardinal
Nicholas of Cusa Nicholas of Cusa (1401 – 11 August 1464), also referred to as Nicholas of Kues and Nicolaus Cusanus (), was a German Catholic bishop and polymath active as a philosopher, theologian, jurist, mathematician, and astronomer. One of the first Ger ...
Vicar-General of the city of Rome and of the Patrimony of S. Peter; and on 15 January he named Bishop Galeazzo Cavrini of Mantua his Governor of Rome. He finally set out for the north on 22 January. While at Mantua, he undertook to mediate in the dispute between
Sigismund of Austria Sigismund (26 October 1427 – 4 March 1496), a member of the House of Habsburg, was Duke of Austria from 1439 (elevated to Archduke in 1477) until his death. As a scion of the Habsburg Leopoldian line, he ruled over Further Austria and the ...
and Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa over the bishopric of Brixen, which had been given Nicholas by
Pope Nicholas V Pope Nicholas V (; ; 15 November 1397 – 24 March 1455), born Tommaso Parentucelli, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 6 March 1447 until his death in March 1455. Pope Eugene IV made him a Cardinal (Catholic Chu ...
in 1450, without the consent of the emperor, the count of Tyrol (Sigismund), or the cathedral chapter of Brixen. A public reconciliation was arranged, but no resolution of the basic problem was achieved, but rather postponed to a Diet to be held at Trent two years in the future. Sigismund, who had not been friendly toward the papacy for some years, left Mantua on 29 November 1459, even more irritated than before. Pius' efforts had failed. Both returned to the north, and in April 1460 trouble broke out again. Cusa, who was at Bruneck and engaged in negotiations with Sigismund, was surrounded, captured by the archduke, and forced to agree to Sigismund's demands. Cusa appealed to Pius II. A restrained Pius only summoned Sigismund to appear before him and explain his conduct, but Sigismund appealed to a future council in a statement handed the pope by his proctor on 4 August 1460. On 8 August, Sigismund was excommunicated and his domains were placed under the interdict. On 26 September 1459, he called for a new crusade against the Ottomans, and on 14 January 1460, he proclaimed the official crusade that was to last for three years. The pope influenced
Vlad III Dracula Vlad III, commonly known as Vlad the Impaler ( ) or Vlad Dracula (; ; 1428/31 – 1476/77), was Voivode of Wallachia three times between 1448 and his death in 1476/77. He is often considered one of the most important rulers in Wallachian hi ...
, whom he held in high regard, to start a war against Sultan
Mehmed II Mehmed II (; , ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror (; ), was twice the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from August 1444 to September 1446 and then later from February 1451 to May 1481. In Mehmed II's first reign, ...
of
Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...
. This conflict at its peak involved the
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...
ns trying to assassinate the Sultan (see
The Night Attack ''The'' is a grammatical article in English, denoting nouns that are already or about to be mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. ''The ...
). After his departure from Mantua on 19 January 1460, Pius II reached his former bishopric of Siena on 30 January, where, exhausted by his exertions at Mantua, he was advised by his doctors to rest, either in the city or at the Petriolo hot springs. There he was joined by his recent host in Mantua, Ludovico Gonzaga. Pius described his delight with country life in very pleasing language.


New cardinals

At the same time, since he had long been concerned with the content of the College of Cardinals and with the behavior of some of its members, The French faction among the cardinals, especially d'Estouteville and
Alain de Coëtivy Alain (II) de Coëtivy (8 November 1407 – 4 May 1474) was a prelate from a Breton noble family. He was bishop of Avignon, Nîmes and of Dol, cardinal of the titular church of Santa Prassede, then cardinal-bishop of Palestrina and cardinal-b ...
, obstructed every move that might harm King
Louis XI Louis XI (3 July 1423 – 30 August 1483), called "Louis the Prudent" (), was King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father, Charles VII. Louis entered into open rebellion against his father in a short-lived revolt known as the ...
, who was hostile to the idea of a crusade. Two cardinals had died six months previously, Antonio de la Cerda y Lloscos and the Infante Jaime of Portugal. Some of the Italian cardinals, led by the Patriarch of Aquileia, Lodovico Scampi, were hostile to him personally and skeptical of his project. Pius decided to hold a consistory for the creation of new cardinals. Suggestions poured in from all sides, petitioning for at least ten new cardinals. During Lent of 1460, he began consultations with the current cardinals, whose consent was necessary. On 4 March 1460, the Wednesday of Ember Days, a formal consistory was held to make the final decisions on the candidates. Pope Pius' opening address was frank and detailed in cataloguing the shortcomings and faults of the luxurious lifestyle of the cardinals, and their activities on behalf of monarchs rather than the church: "Your lifestyle is such that you would appear to have been chosen, not to govern the state, but called to enjoy pleasures. You avoid neither hunting, nor games, nor the company of women. You put together parties that are more opulent than is fitting. You wear clothes that are far too expensive. You overflow with gold and silver.... We can't keep people from making requests, but we can easily refuse to entertain them. Think about who are appropriate, and I will choose from among their number...." He then gave the names of those who nominated themselves, or who had been nominated by others." When he finished, Cardinal Scarampi rose to speak. He remarked that Pius' predecessors had named nobles, eminent for learning and holy life. But he was proposing people whom Scarampi would not employ in his kitchen or in his stables. In fact, according to the cardinal, there was no need for new cardinals: "With too many of us, our value declines.""Vilescunt omnia numerositate." Cugnoni
Aeneae Silvii Piccolomini Senensis... Opera inedita
p. 199. Meserve and Simonetta II, pp. 228-231.
Finally, Pius was able to secure a positive vote on five names, and he was able to pressure the cardinals into accepting his own nomination of a sixth. These were: Angelo Capranica, bishop of Rieti and brother of Cardinal
Domenico Capranica Domenico Capranica (1400 – 14 July 1458) was an Italian theologian, canonist, statesman, and cardinal. Life Cardinal Capranica was born in Capranica Prenestina. His younger brother, Angelo, also became a cardinal. After studies in canon ...
; Bernardo Eroli, bishop of Spoleto;
Niccolò Fortiguerra Niccolò Fortiguerra (also spelled Forteguerri) (1419 — 1473) was an Italian papal legate, military commander, and Cardinal (Catholicism), Cardinal. Born at Pistoia, he was related to Pope Pius II and is counted as a cardinal-nephew. He had a d ...
, bishop of Teano;
Alessandro Oliva Alessandro Oliva (1407–1463) (called the Cardinal of Santa Susanna) was an Italian Roman Catholic cardinal. Biography Alessandro Oliva was born in Sassoferrato in 1409, the son of Alerenzio and Giovanna Oliva. His family was relatively humb ...
de Saxoferrato, the
Prior General Prior (or prioress) is an ecclesiastical title for a superior in some religious orders. The word is derived from the Latin for "earlier" or "first". Its earlier generic usage referred to any monastic superior. In abbeys, a prior would be lowe ...
of the
Order of Hermits of Saint Augustine The Order of Saint Augustine (), abbreviated OSA, is a mendicant religious order of the Catholic Church. It was founded in 1244 by bringing together several eremitical groups in the Tuscany region who were following the Rule of Saint Augustine, ...
(the pope's choice, whose candidacy was much resisted); Pius' nephew
Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini Pope Pius III (, ; 9 May 1439 – 18 October 1503), born Francesco Todeschini, then Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 22 September 1503 to his death. At just twenty-six day ...
, a protonotary apostolic; and Burkhard von Weisbriach, archbishop of Salzburg. The appointment of Weisbriach was not made public until 31 May 1462, to avoid offending the foreign powers. The five cardinals whose names were published were all Italians. On 7 March 1460, Pope Pius had to write to the Duke of Burgundy,
Philip the Good Philip III the Good (; ; 31 July 1396 – 15 June 1467) ruled as Duke of Burgundy from 1419 until his death in 1467. He was a member of a cadet line of the Valois dynasty, to which all 15th-century kings of France belonged. During his reign, ...
, apologizing for having been unable to convince the cardinals to vote for the duke's almoner, Jean Jouffroy, bishop of Arras. He wrote that it was because the cardinals would have no
ultramontanes Ultramontanism is a clerical political conception within the Catholic Church that places strong emphasis on the prerogatives and powers of the Pope. It contrasts with Gallicanism, the belief that popular civil authority—often represented b ...
as cardinals. Pius was recalled to Rome, reaching the city on 6 October 1460. His presence was urged by the disturbances occasioned by Tiburzio di Maso, who, when captured, confessed that he had planned to overthrow the papal government and plunder the cardinals and merchants. He was executed on 31 October. The European powers, however, had not ceased their pressure for the appointment of more cardinals. The cardinals, however, were insistent that there should be no creation of non-Italians. An agreement was finally reached that there would be six new cardinals, three Italians and three "ultramontani", thereby preserving the balance of power. On 18 December 1461, six cardinals were announced:
Bartolomeo Roverella Bartolomeo Roverella (1406–1476) (called the Cardinal of Ravenna) was an Italian Roman Catholic Bishop and cardinal. Biography Bartolomeo Roverella was born in Rovigo in 1406, the son of Palatine Count Giovanni Roverella ( camerlengo of Leon ...
, archbishop of Ravenna;
Jacopo Piccolomini-Ammannati Jacopo Piccolomini-Ammannati, or Giacomo Piccolomini (8 March 1422 – 10 September 1479) was an Italian Renaissance cardinal and humanist. Biography He was born at Pescia, now in the province of Pistoia, Italy. He was related to the Piccolomi ...
, bishop of Pavia; Francesco Gonzaga, who was only 17;
Jean Jouffroy Jean Jouffroy (c. 1412–1473) was a Burgundian prelate and diplomat. He was born at Luxeuil-les-Bains in the County of Burgundy. After entering the Benedictine order and teaching at the university of Pavia from 1435 to 1438, he became almoner ...
, the nomination of Louis XI and Philip the Good;
Louis d'Albret Louis d'Albret (1422–1465) was a French Cardinal. He was a son of Charles II of Albret, Count of Dreux. He was bishop of Aire in 1445, bishop of Cahors in 1460. He was created Cardinal in 1461. In 1465 he was Bishop of Tarbes and Camerlengo o ...
, son of the Count of Dreux; and
Jaume Cardona Jaume Francesc Folc de Cardona i de GandiaPere Català i Roca. ''Els castells catalans'', Volum 4, R.Dalmau, 1993. (1405-1 December 1466) was a Catholic cardinal. He was Bishop of Vich (1445-1459), Girona (1459-1461) and Urgell (1461-1466), the ...
, bishop of Urgel. The name of Burkhard von Weisbriach of Salzburg was also finally published.


Naples, Rimini, Poland

In the struggle for the
Kingdom of Naples The Kingdom of Naples (; ; ), officially the Kingdom of Sicily, was a state that ruled the part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was established by the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282–1302). Until ...
between the supporters of the
House of Aragon House of Aragon may refer to: *the branch of the Jiménez dynasty that ruled Aragon as kings between 1035 and 1162 *the House of Barcelona, which ruled Aragon between 1137 and 1410, united Aragon and Catalonia and ruled Sicily from 1282 until 1409 ...
and the
House of Anjou Angevin or House of Anjou may refer to: *County of Anjou or Duchy of Anjou, a historical county, and later Duchy, in France **Angevin (language), the traditional langue d'oïl spoken in Anjou **Counts and Dukes of Anjou *House of Ingelger, a Franki ...
, the
Papal States The Papal States ( ; ; ), officially the State of the Church, were a conglomeration of territories on the Italian peninsula under the direct sovereign rule of the pope from 756 to 1870. They were among the major states of Italy from the 8th c ...
were at this time troubled by rebellious barons and marauding
condottieri Condottieri (; singular: ''condottiero'' or ''condottiere'') were Italian military leaders active during the Middle Ages and the early modern period. The term originally referred specifically to commanders of mercenary companies, derived from the ...
, whom he gradually, though momentarily, quelled. The Neapolitan War was also concluded by the success of the Pope's ally the Aragonese Ferdinand. In particular, the Pope engaged for most of his reign in what looked like a personal war against
Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta (19 June 1417 – 7 October 1468) was an Italian condottiero and nobleman, a member of the House of Malatesta and lord of Rimini and Fano from 1432. He was widely considered by his contemporaries as one of the mos ...
, Lord of
Rimini Rimini ( , ; or ; ) is a city in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. Sprawling along the Adriatic Sea, Rimini is situated at a strategically-important north-south passage along the coast at the southern tip of the Po Valley. It is ...
, with the result of the almost complete submission of that condottiero. Pius II also tried mediation in the Thirteen Years' War of 1454–66 between
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
and the
Teutonic Knights The Teutonic Order is a Catholic religious institution founded as a military society in Acre, Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem was formed to aid Christians on their pilgrimages to t ...
, but, when he failed to achieve success, cast an
anathema The word anathema has two main meanings. One is to describe that something or someone is being hated or avoided. The other refers to a formal excommunication by a Christian denomination, church. These meanings come from the New Testament, where a ...
over Polish and Prussians both. Pius II was also engaged in a series of disputes with King George of Bohemia and Archduke Sigismund of Austria (who was excommunicated for having arrested
Nicholas of Cusa Nicholas of Cusa (1401 – 11 August 1464), also referred to as Nicholas of Kues and Nicolaus Cusanus (), was a German Catholic bishop and polymath active as a philosopher, theologian, jurist, mathematician, and astronomer. One of the first Ger ...
,
Bishop of Brixen The Diocese of Bolzano-Brixen (, , ) is a Latin Church, Latin diocese of the Catholic Church in northern Italy, with its seat in the city of Bolzano. Its territory corresponds with that of the province of South Tyrol with its predominantly German ...
). In June 1461, Pius II canonized Saint
Catherine of Siena Caterina di Jacopo di Benincasa (25 March 1347 – 29 April 1380), known as Catherine of Siena, was an Italian mystic and pious laywoman who engaged in papal and Italian politics through extensive letter-writing and advocacy. Canonized in 1461, ...
. In October 1461, he gained what at first appeared to be a brilliant success by inducing the new king of France,
Louis XI Louis XI (3 July 1423 – 30 August 1483), called "Louis the Prudent" (), was King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father, Charles VII. Louis entered into open rebellion against his father in a short-lived revolt known as the ...
, to abolish the
Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges The Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, issued by King Charles VII of France, on 7 July 1438, required a General Church Council, with authority superior to that of the papacy, to be held every ten years, required election rather than appointment to ec ...
, by which the papal authority in France had been weakened. But Louis XI had expected that Pius II would in return espouse the French cause in
Naples Naples ( ; ; ) is the Regions of Italy, regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 908,082 within the city's administrative limits as of 2025, while its Metropolitan City of N ...
, and when he found himself disappointed he virtually re-established the Pragmatic Sanction by royal ordinances. Pius II built a fortress in Tivoli called
Rocca Pia Rocca Pia is a ''comune'' and town in the Province of L'Aquila in the Abruzzo region of Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Pen ...
in 1461. The Diocese of Ljubljana was established on 6 December 1461 by
Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III (German language, German: ''Friedrich III,'' 21 September 1415 – 19 August 1493) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1452 until his death in 1493. He was the penultimate emperor to be Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor, crowned by the p ...
. On 9 September 1462, Pope Pius confirmed the action.


Crusade

The crusade for which the Congress of Mantua had been convoked made no progress. In November 1463, Pope Pius II tried to organize the crusade against the Ottomans, similar to what Nicholas V and Calixtus III had tried to do before him. Pius II invited all the Christian nobility to join, and the Venetians immediately answered the appeal. So did George Kastriot Skanderbeg the leader of Albanian resistance, who on 27 November 1463 declared war on the Ottomans and attacked their forces near Ohrid. Pius II's planned crusade envisioned assembling 20,000 soldiers in Taranto, and another 20,000 would be gathered by Skanderbeg. They would have been marshaled in Durazzo under Skanderbeg's leadership and would have formed the central front against the Ottomans. The Pope did his best: he addressed an eloquent letter to the Ottoman ruler,
Mehmet II Mehmed II (; , ; 30 March 14323 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror (; ), was twice the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from August 1444 to September 1446 and then later from February 1451 to May 1481. In Mehmed II's first reign, ...
, urging him to become a Christian. The pope even suggested that if Mehmed were to convert, he would be recognized as "Emperor of the Greeks and of the East." However, there are historians who believe that the mentioned letter was sent to the Sublime Porte. Not surprisingly, if it was delivered, the invitation was not successful. In April 1462, a public pageant was staged for the pope to receive the relics of the head of
Saint Andrew Andrew the Apostle ( ; ; ; ) was an apostle of Jesus. According to the New Testament, he was a fisherman and one of the Twelve Apostles chosen by Jesus. The title First-Called () used by the Eastern Orthodox Church stems from the Gospel of Jo ...
when it was brought from Patras in the Peloponnese to Rome by Thomas Palaeologus. Pius II succeeded in reconciling the Emperor and the King of Hungary, and derived great encouragement as well as pecuniary advantage from the discovery of mines of
alum An alum () is a type of chemical compound, usually a hydrated double salt, double sulfate salt (chemistry), salt of aluminium with the general chemical formula, formula , such that is a valence (chemistry), monovalent cation such as potassium ...
in the papal territory at
Tolfa Tolfa is a town and ''comune'' of the Metropolitan City of Rome, in the Lazio region of central Italy; it lies to the ENE of Civitavecchia by road. It is the main center in the Monti della Tolfa, an extinct volcanic group between Civitavecchia a ...
, c. 1459. However, France was estranged; the
Duke of Burgundy Duke of Burgundy () was a title used by the rulers of the Duchy of Burgundy, from its establishment in 843 to its annexation by the Crown lands of France, French crown in 1477, and later by members of the House of Habsburg, including Holy Roman E ...
broke his positive promises;
Milan Milan ( , , ; ) is a city in northern Italy, regional capital of Lombardy, the largest city in Italy by urban area and the List of cities in Italy, second-most-populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of nea ...
was engrossed with the attempt to seize
Genoa Genoa ( ; ; ) is a city in and the capital of the Italian region of Liguria, and the sixth-largest city in Italy. As of 2025, 563,947 people live within the city's administrative limits. While its metropolitan city has 818,651 inhabitan ...
; Florence cynically advised the Pope to let the Turks and the Venetians wear each other out. Pius II was aware that he was nearing his end, and his malady probably prompted the feverish impatience with which, on 18 June 1464, he assumed the cross and departed for
Ancona Ancona (, also ; ) is a city and a seaport in the Marche region of central Italy, with a population of around 101,997 . Ancona is the capital of the province of Ancona, homonymous province and of the region. The city is located northeast of Ro ...
to conduct the crusade in person.


Slavery

Pius condemned the enslavement of newly baptized Christians as a "great crime". In a letter of 7 October 1462, addressed to the Bishop of Rubico in the
Canary Islands The Canary Islands (; ) or Canaries are an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean and the southernmost Autonomous communities of Spain, Autonomous Community of Spain. They are located in the northwest of Africa, with the closest point to the cont ...
, Pius instructed bishops to impose ecclesiastical penalties on transgressors. Pius did not condemn the concept of trading in slaves, only the enslavement of Christians, who represented a very small minority of those captured and taken to Portugal.


Pienza

Pope Pius II inaugurated an unusual urban project, perhaps the first city-planning exercise in modern Europe. He refurbished his hometown of Corsignano (
province of Siena The province of Siena (, ) is a Provinces of Italy, province in the Tuscany region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Siena. It has 259,826 inhabitants. Geography The province is divided into seven historical areas: * Alta Val d'Elsa * Chian ...
) and renamed it
Pienza Pienza () is a town and ''comune'' in the province of Siena, Tuscany, in the historical region of Val d'Orcia. Situated between the towns of Montepulciano and Montalcino, it is considered the "touchstone of Renaissance urbanism". In 1996, UNESCO d ...
, after himself. A cathedral and palaces were built in the best style of the day to decorate the city. They survive to this day. He also issued a
papal bull A papal bull is a type of public decree, letters patent, or charter issued by the pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the leaden Seal (emblem), seal (''bulla (seal), bulla'') traditionally appended to authenticate it. History Papal ...
, '' Cum almam nostram urbem'', on 28 April 1462, prohibiting damage to ancient ruins in Rome or
Campagna Campagna (Italian: ) is a small town and ''comune'' of the province of Salerno, in the Campania region of Southern Italy. Its population is 17,148. Its old Latin name was Civitas Campaniae (City of Campagna). Campagna is located in one of the ...
.


Illness and death

On 26 April 1463, Pius II published his most famous retraction in the bull "In Minoribus Agentes," addressed to the rector and members of the University of Cologne. In it, he withdrew his treatise against
Pope Eugene IV Pope Eugene IV (; ; 1383 – 23 February 1447), born Gabriele Condulmer, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 11 March 1431 to his death, in February 1447. Condulmer was a Republic of Venice, Venetian, and a nephew ...
and in favor of the Council of Basel. It contained the famous remark, "reject Aeneas, retain Pius" (''Aeneam rejicite, Pium recipite''). In spite of suffering from a fever, Pope Pius II left Rome for
Ancona Ancona (, also ; ) is a city and a seaport in the Marche region of central Italy, with a population of around 101,997 . Ancona is the capital of the province of Ancona, homonymous province and of the region. The city is located northeast of Ro ...
on 18 June 1464, arriving on 18 July. He hoped to increase the morale of the crusading army. However, the armed forces melted away at Ancona for want of transport and the outbreak of pestilence, and when at last the Venetian fleet arrived, led by Doge
Cristoforo Moro Cristoforo Moro (1390 – November 10, 1471) was the 67th Doge of Venice. He reigned from 1462 to 1471. Family The Moro family settled in Venice in the 5th century when Stephanus Maurus, a great-grandson of Maurus, built a church on the island ...
, the dying Pope could only view it from a window. He died two days later, on 14 August 1464. The cardinals at Ancona decided to put the papal galleys in the hands of the doge of Venice, on the understanding that they would be handed over to the next pope. They also sent the 48,000 gold ducats which Pius had on hand for the crusade to Matthias of Hungary. The crusade of Pius II was at an end. Despite the canonical requirement that the conclave to elect a successor should take place in the place where he died, Pius II's body was taken to Rome and interred at the Vatican, in Old St. Peter's Basilica, in the Chapel of St. Andrew. When his nephew,
Pius III Pope Pius III (, ; 9 May 1439 – 18 October 1503), born Francesco Todeschini, then Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 22 September 1503 to his death. At just twenty-six day ...
, died in 1503, he was buried next to Pius II. In 1506, because of the demolition of Old St. Peter's, the tombs were moved to the crypt. In 1612, when the church of St. Andrea della Valle was completed, the bodies of both popes, as well as parts of their funeral monuments, were moved there and re-entombed on 1 February 1613.


Literary reputation and legacy

Pius II was a prominent author of poetry in his lifetime, being named imperial poet laureate in 1442. But his reputation in ''
belles lettres () is a category of writing, originally meaning beautiful or fine writing. In the modern narrow sense, it is a label for literary works that do not fall into the major categories such as fiction, poetry, or drama. The phrase is sometimes used pej ...
'' rests principally upon his ''
The Tale of Two Lovers ''The Tale of Two Lovers'' () (1444) is a novel by Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, the future Pope Pius II. It is one of the earliest examples of an epistolary novel, full of erotic imagery. The first printed edition was published by Ulrich Zell in ...
'', an
erotic Eroticism () is a quality that causes sexual feelings, as well as a philosophical contemplation concerning the aesthetics of sexual desire, sensuality, and romantic love. That quality may be found in any form of artwork, including painting, sculp ...
novel. He also composed some
comedies Comedy is a genre of dramatic works intended to be humorous or amusing by inducing laughter, especially in theatre, film, stand-up comedy, television, radio, books, or any other entertainment medium. Origins Comedy originated in ancient Gr ...
, of which only one (''Chrysis'') is extant. All of his works are in
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
. He also wrote numerous erotic poems. All of the erotic material was written well before he was elected to the papacy. His ''Epistles'', which were collected by himself, are also an important source of historical information. His ''Epistles'' contain one of the best known descriptions of the enthronement ceremony of the Carinthian dukes on the Prince's Stone and the
Duke's Chair The Duke's Chair, also known as the Duke's Seat (, or ), is a medieval stone seat dating from the ninth century and located at the Zollfeld plain near Maria Saal, north of Klagenfurt in the Austrian state of Carinthia. History The Duke's ...
. It is generally considered to be the source for
Jean Bodin Jean Bodin (; ; – 1596) was a French jurist and political philosopher, member of the Parlement of Paris and professor of law in Toulouse. Bodin lived during the aftermath of the Protestant Reformation and wrote against the background of reli ...
's description of the ceremony in his ''Six Livres de la République''. The most valuable of his historical writings are his histories of Bohemia and of Emperor Frederick III. He sketched biographical treatises on
Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...
and
Asia Asia ( , ) is the largest continent in the world by both land area and population. It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometres, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which ...
, and in early and middle life produced numerous tracts on the political and theological controversies of his day. The pontiff even wrote an exhaustive refutation of
Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
. His most important and longest work is his autobiographical ''Commentaries'', first published in 1584 in Rome by Archbishop Francesco Bandini Piccolomini, a distant relative. Bandini Piccolomini published it under the name of Iohannes Gobellinus, the scribe of the manuscript archetype of 1464, who was then named the author. Pius II chose to write ''Commentaries'' from the third-person perspective, following Caesar's example. This posthumous edition altered some content judged inappropriate. Of his own work, Aeneas Silvius wrote, "My style of writing is unpolished and bald, but it is frank, and without trappings. I never write with labour, because I do not stretch after things which are too high for me, and which I do not know; but what I have learned I write."Quoted by Creighton (1902)
''Historical Essays and Reviews''
p. 79.


See also

* Cardinals created by Pius II * Gregory of Heimburg, secretary to Pius II *
Pope Pius III Pope Pius III (, ; 9 May 1439 – 18 October 1503), born Francesco Todeschini, then Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 22 September 1503 to his death. At just twenty-six day ...
, nephew of Pius II *
Bishops of Warmia This is a list of Bishops and Prince-Bishops of the Diocese of Warmia (, , ), which was elevated to the Archdiocese of Warmia in 1992. The Bishopric was founded in 1243 as the Bishopric of Ermland, one of four bishoprics of Teutonic Prussia. ...
*
Pienza Pienza () is a town and ''comune'' in the province of Siena, Tuscany, in the historical region of Val d'Orcia. Situated between the towns of Montepulciano and Montalcino, it is considered the "touchstone of Renaissance urbanism". In 1996, UNESCO d ...


References


Bibliography

*Ady, Cecilia M. (1913).
Pius II (Æneas Silvius Piccolomini) the Humanist Pope.
' London: Methuen, 1913. *Baldi, Barbara (2012). ''Il 'cardinale tedesco'. Enea Silvio Piccolomini fra impero, papato, Europa, (1442–1455).'' . Milano: UNICOPLI 2012. * Bisaha, Nancy (ed.); Brown, Robert (tr.) (2013)
''Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, Europe (c. 1400–1458).''
Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2013. *Boulting, William (1908).
Æneas Silvius (Enea Silvio De' Piccolomini – Pius II.): Orator, Man of Letters, Statesman, and Pope
'' London: A. Constable and Company, 1908. * . pp. 235–260, 365–500. * Garnett, Richard (1911). "Pius II," in
''The Encyclopædia Britannica.''
11th edition, Vol. 21 (Cambridge University Press 1911), pp. 683–684. *Gragg, Florence Alden (translator); Gabel, Leona Christine (contributor) (1937)
''The Commentaries of Pius II.''
Northampton. Mass.: Smith College Department of History 1937. (Smith College Studies in History, Volume 22, nos. 1–2). * . * Leaños, Jaime (2011). "Opportunism or Self Awareness: The Misunderstood Persona of Pope Pius II," in: ''Imago Temporis. Medium Aevum'' Vol. V (Lieda Spain: University de Lieda 2011), pp. 243–263. *Mitchell, Rosamond Joscelyne (1962). ''The Laurels and the Tiara: Pope Pius II, 1458–1464.'' London: Harvill Press, 1962. * . * Pastor, Ludwig (1894)
''The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages: Drawn from the Secret Archives of the Vatican and Other Original Sources.''
Volume 3 London: Kegan Paul Trench Trübner 1894. *Pellegrini, Marco. (2015)
"PIO II, papa,"
, in: ''Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani'' Volume 83 (2015). *


Works of Aeneas Sylvius

*Morrall, Eric J. (1988)
''Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (Pius II) and Niklas von Wyle. The Tale of Two Lovers: Eurialus and Lucretia''
Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988. * Pius II, (first edition). * Pius II
''Pius II. Pont. Max. a calumniis vindicatus ternis retractationibus eius quibus dicta et scripta pro concilio Basileensi contra Eugenium PP. IV. eiuravit.''
ed. Carolus Fea. Romae: Franciscus Bourlié 1823. * Pius II. ''Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomineus, qui postea Pius II. P. M.
De viris illustribus
'' . Stuttgart: Sumtibus Societatis literariæ stuttgardiensis, 1842. * Pius II, ''Pii Pont. Max
Decadum Blondi epitome
qua omnis ab inclinato Romanorum imperio historia, quae coepit fere anno Christi quadringentesimoseptimo, per mille & amplius annos, miro compendio, citra obscuritatem tamen, complectitur.'' Basel: Apud Ioannem Bebelium, 1533. * Pius II
''Epistolae in pontificatu editae.''
. Mediolani: Antonius Zarotus, 1473. * Pius II
''Epistulae in cardinalatu editae.''
. Romae: Johann Schurener, 1475. * Pius II, ''Aeneae Syluij Piccolominei Senensis, qui post adeptum pontificatum Pius eius nominis secundus appellatus est
Opera quae extant omnia
nunc demum post corruptissimas editiones summa diligentia castigata & in unum corpus redacta, quorum elenchum uersa pagella indicabit: his quoque accessit gnomologia ex omnibus Syluij operibus collecta.'' Basel: Per Henrichum Petri, 1551. *Pius II
''Aeneae Sylvii De Picolominibus episcopi Tergestini De rebus Basileae gestis stante vel dissoluto concilio commentarius primitus e bibliotheca Vaticana in lucem editus praeposito proemio, subjectis adnotationibus cura Michaelis Catalani canonici Ecclesiae Firmanae.''
. Fermo: apud Jos. Alexandrum Paccasassium, 1803. *Heck, A. van (1994). ''Eneae Silviae Piccolominei "Carmina".'' (Città del Vaticano 1994). tudi e testi, 364 * ulls of Pius II*Wolkan, Rudolf (ed.) (1909)
''Der Briefwechsel des Eneas Silvius Piccolomini.''
I. Abteilung: Briefe aus der Laienzeit (1431–1445). I. Band: Privatbriefe. . ontes Rerum Austriacarum, Volume 61Wien: A. Hölder, 1909. *Wolkan, Rudolf (ed.) (1909b).
''Der Briefwechsel des Eneas Silvius Piccolomini.''
I. Abteilung: Briefe aus der Laienzeit (1431–1445). II. Band: Amtliche Briefe. . ontes Rerum Austriacarum, Volume 62Wien: A. Hölder, 1909.


For further reading

* Coulombe. Charles A., ''Vicars of Christ: A History of the Popes'', Citadel Press, 2003, * Creighton, Mandell (1902)
''Historical Essays and Reviews''.
London: Longmans, Green, and Company, 1902. "Aeneas Silvius," pp. 55–106. * Earle, Thomas Foster; Lowe K.J.P (editors) (2005). ''Black Africans in Renaissance Europe''. Cambridge University Press, 2005 . *Gregorovius, Ferdinand (1900)
''History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages''
Volume 7, Part 1 London: G. Bell, 1900. pp. 160–217. ritical of Pius II* 3 vols. * Norwich, John Julius, ''Absolute Monarchs: A History of the Papacy'', Random House, 2011,


External links


Tomb of Pius II
* Pius II, (first edition). * * Stefan Bauer
Enea Silvio Piccolomini
in ''Il contributo italiano alla storia del pensiero: storia e politica'', ed. Giuseppe Galasso et al. (Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 2013) (Ottava appendice della Enciclopedia italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti), pp. 137–43. {{DEFAULTSORT:Pius 02 1405 births 1464 deaths 15th-century Italian writers 15th-century Italian Roman Catholic bishops 15th-century popes 15th-century writers in Latin Bishops of Siena Bishops of Warmia Burials at Sant'Andrea della Valle Christian humanists Diplomats for the Holy See House of Piccolomini Italian male non-fiction writers Italian popes Italian Renaissance humanists Italian Roman Catholic writers Latin-language writers from Italy People from Pienza Popes Renaissance Papacy