Emerald Ash Borer Infestation
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The emerald ash borer (''Agrilus planipennis''), also known by the abbreviation EAB, is a green buprestid or jewel beetle native to north-eastern Asia that feeds on ash species (''Fraxinus'' spp.). Females lay eggs in bark crevices on ash trees, and larvae feed underneath the bark of ash trees to emerge as adults in one to two years. In its native range, it is typically found at low densities and does not cause significant damage to trees native to the area. Outside its native range, it is an
invasive species An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be used for native spec ...
and is highly destructive to ash trees native to Europe and North America. Before it was found in North America, very little was known about the emerald ash borer in its native range; this has resulted in much of the research on its biology being focused in North America. Local governments in North America are attempting to control it by monitoring its spread, diversifying tree species, and through the use of
insecticide Insecticides are pesticides used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. The major use of insecticides is in agriculture, but they are also used in home and garden settings, i ...
s and
biological control Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, whether pest animals such as insects and mites, weeds, or pathogens affecting animals or plants by using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or o ...
.


History

French priest and naturalist
Armand David Armand David, CM (7 September 1826, Espelette – 10 November 1900, Paris) was a Lazarist missionary Catholic priest as well as a zoologist and a botanist from the French Basque Country. Several species, such as Père David's deer ...
collected a specimen of the species during one of his trips through
Imperial China The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Y ...
in the 1860s and 1870s. He found the beetle in Beijing and sent it to France, where the first brief
description Description is any type of communication that aims to make vivid a place, object, person, group, or other physical entity. It is one of four rhetorical modes (also known as ''modes of discourse''), along with exposition, argumentation, and narr ...
of ''Agrilus planipennis'' by the entomologist
Léon Fairmaire Léon Marc Herminie Fairmaire (29 June 1820 – 1 April 1906) was a French entomologist. As a specialist in Coleoptera, he assembled an immense collection comparable with that of Pierre François Marie Auguste Dejean (1780–1845). This is in the ...
was published in the ''Revue d'Entomologie'' in 1888. Unaware of Fairmaire's description, a separate description naming the species as ''Agrilus marcopoli'' was published in 1930 by Jan Obenberger.


Identification

Adult beetles are typically bright metallic green and about long and wide.
Elytra An elytron (; ; : elytra, ) is a modified, hardened forewing of beetles (Coleoptera), though a few of the true bugs (Hemiptera) such as the family Schizopteridae are extremely similar; in true bugs, the forewings are called hemelytra (sometime ...
are typically a darker green, but can have copper hues. Emerald ash borer is the only North American species of '' Agrilus'' with a bright red upper abdomen when viewed with the wings and elytra spread. The species has a small spine at the tip of the abdomen, and serrate antennae that begin at the fourth antennal segment. They leave tracks below the bark in the trees they damage that are sometimes visible. Adult beetles of other species are often misidentified by the public.


Life cycle

The emerald ash borer life cycle can occur over one or two years depending on the time of year of
oviposition The ovipositor is a tube-like organ used by some animals, especially insects, for the laying of eggs. In insects, an ovipositor consists of a maximum of three pairs of appendages. The details and morphology of the ovipositor vary, but typica ...
, the health of the tree, and temperature. After 400–500 accumulated degree-days above , adults begin to emerge from trees in late spring, and peak emergence occurs around 1,000 degree-days. After emergence, adults feed for one week on ash leaves in the
canopy Canopy may refer to: Plants * Canopy (biology), aboveground portion of plant community or crop (including forests) * Canopy (grape), aboveground portion of grapes Religion and ceremonies * Baldachin or canopy of state, typically placed over an a ...
before mating, but cause little defoliation. Males hover around trees, locate females by visual cues, and drop directly onto the female to mate. Mating can last 50 minutes, and females may mate with multiple males over their lifespan. A typical female can live around six weeks and lay approximately 40–70 eggs; females that live longer can lay up to 200 eggs. Eggs are deposited in bark crevices, flakes, or cracks and hatch about two weeks later. Eggs are approximately in diameter, and are initially white, later turning reddish-brown if fertile. After hatching, larvae chew through the bark to the inner
phloem Phloem (, ) is the living tissue in vascular plants that transports the soluble organic compounds made during photosynthesis and known as ''photosynthates'', in particular the sugar sucrose, to the rest of the plant. This transport process is ...
,
cambium A cambium (: cambiums or cambia), in plants, is a tissue layer that provides partially undifferentiated cells for plant growth. It is found in the area between xylem and phloem. A cambium can also be defined as a cellular plant tissue from whic ...
, and outer
xylem Xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue (biology), tissue in vascular plants, the other being phloem; both of these are part of the vascular bundle. The basic function of the xylem is to transport water upward from the roots to parts o ...
where they feed and develop. Emerald ash borer has four larval
instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'' 'form, likeness') is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, which occurs between each moult (''ecdysis'') until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to ...
s. By feeding, larvae create long serpentine galleries. Fully mature fourth-instar larvae are long. In fall, mature fourth-instars excavate chambers about into the sapwood or outer bark where they fold into a J-shape. These J-shaped larvae shorten into prepupae and develop into pupae and adults the following spring. To exit the tree, adults chew holes from their chamber through the bark, which leaves a characteristic D-shaped exit hole. Immature larvae can overwinter in their larval gallery, but can require an additional summer of feeding before overwintering again and emerging as adults the following spring. This two-year life cycle is more common in cool climates, such as
European Russia European Russia is the western and most populated part of the Russia, Russian Federation. It is geographically situated in Europe, as opposed to the country's sparsely populated and vastly larger eastern part, Siberia, which is situated in Asia ...
. File:Eablarva.jpg, Larva File:Eabpupa.jpg, Pupa removed from its pupal chamber. File:Eabexithole.jpg, Adults exit the tree from D-shaped holes. File:EmeraldAshBorerdorsal.jpg, Dorsal view of adult with elytra and wings spread. Image:Ventral adult eab.jpg, Underside of an adult emerald ash borer.


Range

The native range of the emerald ash borer is
temperate In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ran ...
north-eastern Asia, which includes Russia, Mongolia, northern China, Japan, and Korea. The beetle is invasive in North America where it has a core population in
Michigan Michigan ( ) is a peninsular U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, Upper Midwestern United States. It shares water and land boundaries with Minnesota to the northwest, Wisconsin to the west, ...
and surrounding states and provinces. Populations are more scattered outside the core area, and the edges of its known distribution range north to
Ontario Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...
, south to northern
Louisiana Louisiana ( ; ; ) is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It borders Texas to the west, Arkansas to the north, and Mississippi to the east. Of the 50 U.S. states, it ranks 31st in area and 25 ...
, west to
Nebraska Nebraska ( ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders South Dakota to the north; Iowa to the east and Missouri to the southeast, both across the Missouri River; Ka ...
, and east to
New Brunswick New Brunswick is a Provinces and Territories of Canada, province of Canada, bordering Quebec to the north, Nova Scotia to the east, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the northeast, the Bay of Fundy to the southeast, and the U.S. state of Maine to ...
. Satellite populations exist in Colorado and in the Pacific Northwest in
Oregon Oregon ( , ) is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is a part of the Western U.S., with the Columbia River delineating much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while t ...
. In eastern Europe, a population was found in Moscow in 2003. From 2003 to 2016, this population has spread west towards the European Union at up to per year and is expected to reach
central Europe Central Europe is a geographical region of Europe between Eastern Europe, Eastern, Southern Europe, Southern, Western Europe, Western and Northern Europe, Northern Europe. Central Europe is known for its cultural diversity; however, countries in ...
between 2031 and 2036. Although not recorded from the European Union as of 2019, it has already spread to far eastern Ukraine from neighboring Russia.


Host plants

In its native range, emerald ash borer is only a nuisance pest on native trees, as population densities typically do not reach levels lethal to healthy trees. In China, it infests native '' Fraxinus chinensis'', ''F. mandshurica'', and ''F. rhynchophylla''; in Japan it also infests ''F. japonica'' and ''F. lanuginosa''. Emerald ash borer primarily infest and can cause significant damage to ash species including green ash ('' F. pennsylvanica''), black ash ('' F. nigra''), white ash ('' F. americana''), and blue ash ('' F. quadrangulata'') in North America. In Europe, '' F. excelsior'' is the main ash species colonized, which is moderately resistant to emerald ash borer infestation. Ash susceptibility can vary depending on the attractiveness of chemical
volatiles Volatility or volatile may refer to: Chemistry * Volatility (chemistry), a measuring tendency of a substance or liquid to vaporize easily ** Volatile organic compounds, organic or carbon compounds that can evaporate at normal temperature and pre ...
to adults, or the ability of larvae to detoxify phenolic compounds. Emerald ash borer has been found infesting white fringe tree in North America, which is a non-ash host, but it is unclear whether the trees were healthy when first infested, or were already in decline because of drought. Another non-ash host has been discovered, '' Olea europaea'', albeit in a lab setting. Adults prefer to lay eggs on open grown or stressed ash but readily lay eggs on healthy trees amongst other tree species. Ashes that grow in pure stands, whether naturally occurring or in landscaping, are more prone to attack than isolated trees or those in mixed forest stands. Ashes used in landscaping tend to be subjected to higher amounts of environmental stresses including compacted soil, lack of moisture, heating effects from urban islands, road salt, and pollution, which may reduce their resistance to the borer. Furthermore, most ashes used in landscaping are produced from a handful of cultivars, resulting in low
genetic diversity Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It ranges widely, from the number of species to differences within species, and can be correlated to the span of survival for a species. It is d ...
. Young trees with bark between to are preferred. Both males and females use leaf volatiles and
sesquiterpenes Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units and often have the molecular formula C15H24. Like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes may be cyclic or contain rings, including many combinations. Biochemical modifications s ...
in the bark to locate hosts. Damage occurs in infested trees by larval feeding. The serpentine feeding galleries of the larvae disrupt the flow of nutrients and water, effectively
girdling Girdling, also called ring-barking, is the circumferential removal or injury of the bark (consisting of cork cambium or "phellogen", phloem, cambium and sometimes also the xylem) of a branch or trunk of a woody plant. Girdling prevents th ...
, thus killing the tree, as it cannot transport water and nutrients to the leaves. Girdled ashes will often attempt to regenerate through stump sprouting, and there is evidence that stressed trees may generate higher than normal seed crops as an emergency measure.


Invasiveness

Outside its native range, emerald ash borer is an
invasive species An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be used for native spec ...
that is highly destructive to ash trees in its introduced range. Before emerald ash borer was found in North America, very little was known about the insect in its native range aside from a short description of life-history traits and taxonomic descriptions, which resulted in focused research on its biology in North America. The insect was first identified in
Canton, Michigan Canton Township (commonly known simply as Canton) is a charter township in Wayne County, Michigan, Wayne County in the U.S. state of Michigan. A western Metro Detroit, suburb of Detroit, Canton is located roughly west of downtown Detroit, and e ...
in 2002, but it may have been in the U.S. since the late 1980s. It is suspected that it was introduced from overseas in shipping materials such as packing crates. Without factors that would normally suppress emerald ash borer populations in its native range (e.g., resistant trees, predators, and
parasitoid wasp Parasitoid wasps are a large group of hymenopteran Superfamily (zoology), superfamilies, with all but the wood wasps (Orussoidea) being in the wasp-waisted Apocrita. As parasitoids, they lay their eggs on or in the bodies of other arthropods, ...
s), populations can quickly rise to damaging levels. After initial infestation of an area and without control measures, all ash trees are expected to die within 10 years. Every North American ash species is susceptible to emerald ash borer, but some Asian ash species are resistant, including '' F. baroniana, F. chinensis, F. floribunda, F. mandshurica'', and '' F. platypoda''.
Green ash Green is the color between cyan and yellow on the visible spectrum. It is evoked by light which has a dominant wavelength of roughly 495570 nm. In subtractive color systems, used in painting and color printing, it is created by a combi ...
and black ash trees are preferred by emerald ash borer. White ash is also killed rapidly but usually only after all green and black ash trees are eliminated. Blue ash exhibits a higher degree of resistance to emerald ash borer, believed to be caused by the leaves' high
tannin Tannins (or tannoids) are a class of astringent, polyphenolic biomolecules that bind to and Precipitation (chemistry), precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids. The term ''tannin'' is widel ...
content making the foliage unpalatable to the insect. While most Asian ashes have evolved this defense, it is absent from American species other than blue ash. Researchers have examined populations of so-called "lingering ash", trees that have survived ash borer attack with little or no damage, for the grafting or breeding of new, resistant stock. Many lingering ashes have unusual phenotypes that may increase resistance. Aside from their higher tannin content, Asian ashes employ natural defenses to repel, trap, and kill emerald ash borer larvae. Although studies of American ashes have suggested that they are capable of mustering similar defensive mechanisms, the trees do not appear to recognize when they are under attack. Many of the specialized predators and parasitoids that suppress emerald ash borer in Asia are not present in North America. Predators and parasitoids native to North America do not sufficiently suppress emerald ash borer, so populations continue to grow. Birds such as woodpeckers feed on emerald ash borer larva, although the adult beetles have not been used by any American fauna as food. Emerald ash borer populations can spread between per year. It primarily spreads through flight or by transportation of ash bark contained in products such as firewood or nursery stock, which allows it to reach new areas and create satellite populations outside of the main infestation. Other factors can limit spread. Winter temperatures of approximately limit range expansion, and overwintering emerald ash borer survive down to average temperatures of because of antifreeze chemicals in the body and insulation provided by tree bark. Larvae can survive high heat up to . Conversely, much like ashes grown in the nursery trade, the population of emerald ash borer in North America is believed to have originated from a single group of insects from central China and exhibits low genetic diversity. North American predators and parasitoids can occasionally cause high emerald ash borer mortality, but generally offer only limited control. Mortality from native woodpeckers is variable. Parasitism by parasitoids such as '' Atanycolus cappaerti'' can be high, but overall such control is generally low. The
United States Department of Agriculture The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an executive department of the United States federal government that aims to meet the needs of commercial farming and livestock food production, promotes agricultural trade and producti ...
's
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) based in Riverdale Park, Maryland, Riverdale, Maryland responsible for protecting animal health, animal welfare, and plant h ...
published a rule on 14 December 2020, ending all EAB quarantine activities in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
due to ineffectiveness so far. Other means will be used instead, especially biological controls (see §Biological control below). Emerald ash borer have eliminated the majority of the 300,000 ash trees in the National Capital Region in nine years, leaving fewer than 80,000. These forests had 17-18 ash trees per hectare prior to infestation, and 5-6 per hectare subsequently, with an impact on ecosystems. Ash-dominated swamplands have become shrublands, impacting wildlife.


Environmental and economic impacts

Emerald ash borer threatens the entire North American genus ''
Fraxinus ''Fraxinus'' (), commonly called ash, is a genus of plants in the olive and lilac family, Oleaceae, and comprises 45–65 species of usually medium-to-large trees, most of which are deciduous trees, although some Subtropics, subtropical specie ...
''. It has killed tens of millions of ash trees so far and threatens to kill most of the 8.7 billion ash trees throughout North America. Emerald ash borer kills young trees several years before reaching their seeding age of 10 years. In both North America and Europe, the loss of ash from an ecosystem can result in increased numbers of invasive plants, changes in soil nutrients, and effects on species that feed on ash. Damage and efforts to control the spread of emerald ash borer have affected businesses that sell ash trees or wood products, property owners, and local or state governments. Quarantines can limit the transport of ash trees and products, but economic impacts are especially high for urban and residential areas because of treatment or removal costs and decreased land value from dying trees. Costs for managing these trees can fall upon homeowners or local municipalities. For municipalities, removing large numbers of dead or infested trees at once is costly, so slowing down the rate at which trees die through removing known infested trees and treating trees with insecticides can allow local governments more time to plan, remove, and replace trees that would eventually die. This strategy saves money as it would cost $10.7 billion in urban areas of 25 states over 10 years, while removing and replacing all ash trees in these same areas at once would cost $25 billion (with another estimate putting the removal alone at $20–60 billion). Some urban areas such as
Minneapolis Minneapolis is a city in Hennepin County, Minnesota, United States, and its county seat. With a population of 429,954 as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is the state's List of cities in Minnesota, most populous city. Locat ...
have large amounts of ash with slightly more than 20% of their
urban forest Urban means "related to a city". In that sense, the term may refer to: * Urban area, geographical area distinct from rural areas * Urban culture, the culture of towns and cities Urban may also refer to: General * Urban (name), a list of peop ...
as ash.


Monitoring

In areas where emerald ash borer has not yet been detected, surveys are used to monitor for new infestations. Visual surveys are used to find ash trees displaying emerald ash borer damage, and traps with colors attractive to emerald ash borer, such as purple or green, are hung in trees as part of a monitoring program. These traps can also have volatile
pheromones A pheromone () is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavi ...
applied to them that attract primarily males. Sometimes trees are girdled to act as trap trees to monitor for emerald ash borer. The stressed tree attracts egg-laying females in the spring, and trees can be debarked in the fall to search for larvae. If detected, an area is often placed under a quarantine to prevent infested wood material from causing new infestations. Further control measures are then taken within the area to slow population growth by reducing beetle numbers, preventing them from reaching reproductive maturity and dispersing, and reducing the abundance of ash trees. Government agencies in both the U.S. and Canada have utilized a native species of parasitoid wasp, '' Cerceris fumipennis'', as a means of detecting areas to which emerald ash borer has spread. The females of these wasps hunt other jewel beetles and emerald ash borer if it is present. The wasps stun the beetles and carry them back to their burrows in the ground where they are stored until the wasps' eggs hatch and the wasp larvae feed on the beetles. Volunteers catch the wasps as they return to their burrows carrying the beetles to determine whether emerald ash borer is present. This methodology is known as biological surveillance, as opposed to biological control, because it does not appear that the wasps have a significant negative impact on emerald ash borer populations.


Management

In areas where emerald ash borer is non-native and invasive, quarantines, infested tree removal, insecticides, and biological control are used to reduce damage to ash trees.


Quarantine and tree removal

Once an infestation is detected, quarantines are typically imposed by state, or previously, national government agencies disallowing transport of ash firewood or live plants outside of these areas without permits indicating the material has been inspected or treated (i.e., heat treatment or wood chipping) to ensure no live emerald ash borer are present in the bark and phloem. In urban areas, trees are often removed once an infestation is found to reduce emerald ash borer population densities and the likelihood of further spread. Urban ash are typically replaced with non-ash species such as maple, oak, or linden to limit food sources. In rural areas, trees can be harvested for lumber or firewood to reduce ash stand density, but quarantines may apply for this material, especially in areas where the material could be infested. Kentucky Extension specialists suggest selecting uncommon species to replace removed ashes in the landscape. Previous generations created
monoculture In agriculture, monoculture is the practice of growing one crop species in a field at a time. Monocultures increase ease and efficiency in planting, managing, and harvesting crops short-term, often with the help of machinery. However, monocultur ...
s by planting ash trees in an overabundance, a factor in the extent of the devastation caused by the emerald ash borer. Favoring instead a diversity in species helps keep urban forests healthy.
University of Kentucky The University of Kentucky (UK, UKY, or U of K) is a Public University, public Land-grant University, land-grant research university in Lexington, Kentucky, United States. Founded in 1865 by John Bryan Bowman as the Agricultural and Mechanical ...
scientists suggest choosing monotypic species such as the pawpaw, yellowwood, Franklin tree,
Kentucky coffeetree The Kentucky coffeetree (''Gymnocladus dioicus''), also known as American coffee berry, Kentucky mahogany, nicker tree, and stump tree, is a tree in the subfamily Caesalpinioideae of the legume family Fabaceae, native to the Midwest, Upper South, ...
,
Osage orange ''Maclura pomifera'', commonly known as the Osage orange ( ), is a small deciduous tree or large shrub, native to the south-central United States. It typically grows about tall. The distinctive fruit, a multiple fruit that resembles an immatur ...
, sourwood, and
bald cypress ''Taxodium distichum'' (baldcypress, bald-cypress, bald cypress, swamp cypress; ; ''cipre'' in Louisiana) is a deciduous conifer in the family Cupressaceae. It is native to the southeastern United States. Hardy and tough, this tree adapts to a w ...
.


Insecticides

Insecticides with active ingredients such as azadirachtin,
imidacloprid Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide belonging to a class of chemicals called the neonicotinoids which act on the central nervous system of insects. The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect nervous system. ...
, emamectin benzoate, and dinotefuran are currently used. Dinotefuran and imidacloprid are systemic (i.e., incorporated into the tree) and remain effective for one to three years depending on the product. Insecticides are typically only considered a viable option in urban areas with high value trees near an infestation. Ash trees are primarily treated by direct injection into the tree or soil drench. Some insecticides cannot be applied by homeowners and must be applied by licensed applicators. Damage from emerald ash borer can continue to increase over time even with insecticide applications. Insecticide treatments are not feasible for large forested areas outside of urban areas.


Biological control

The native range of emerald ash borer in Asia was surveyed for parasitoid species that parasitize emerald ash borer and do not attack other insect species in the hope they would suppress populations when released in North America. Three species imported from China were approved for release by the
USDA The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an United States federal executive departments, executive department of the Federal government of the United States, United States federal government that aims to meet the needs of commerc ...
in 2007 and in Canada in 2013: '' Spathius agrili'', '' Tetrastichus planipennisi'', and '' Oobius agrili'', while '' Spathius galinae'' was approved for release in 2015. Excluding ''Spathius galinae'', which has only recently been released, the other three species have been documented parasitizing emerald ash borer larvae one year after release, indicating that they survived the winter, but establishment varied among species and locations. ''Tetrastichus planipennisi'' and ''Oobius agrili'' established and have had increasing populations in Michigan since 2008; ''Spathius agrili'' has had lower establishment success in North America, which could be caused by a lack of available emerald ash borer larvae at the time of adult emergence in spring, limited cold tolerance, and better suitability to regions of North America below the 40th parallel. The USDA is also assessing the application of '' Beauveria bassiana'', an insect fungal
pathogen In biology, a pathogen (, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of"), in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a Germ theory of d ...
, for controlling emerald ash borer in conjunction with parasitoid wasps.


See also

* Forest integrated pest management *
Forest pathology Forest pathology is the research of both biotic and abiotic maladies affecting the health of a forest ecosystem, primarily fungal pathogens and their insect vectors. It is a subfield of forestry and plant pathology. Forest pathology is part ...
*
Chestnut blight The pathogenic fungus ''Cryphonectria parasitica'' (formerly ''Endothia parasitica'') is a member of the Ascomycota (sac fungi). This necrotrophic fungus is native to East Asia and South East Asia and was introduced into Europe and North America ...
* Dutch elm disease *
Invasive species An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment. Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. The term can also be used for native spec ...


References


External links


Species Profile
Canadian Food Inspection Agency
Species Profile – Emerald Ash Borer (''Agrilus planipennis'')
National Invasive Species Information Center,
United States National Agricultural Library The United States National Agricultural Library (NAL) is one of the world's largest agricultural research libraries, and serves as a national library of the United States and as the library of the United States Department of Agriculture. Locate ...
. Lists general information and resources for emerald ash borer. * {{Authority control Buprestidae Beetles of Asia Insects of Russia Woodboring beetles Insect pests of temperate forests Forestry in the United States Beetles described in 1888 Taxa named by Léon Fairmaire