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Electronic discovery (also ediscovery or e-discovery) refers to
discovery Discovery may refer to: * Discovery (observation), observing or finding something unknown * Discovery (fiction), a character's learning something unknown * Discovery (law), a process in courts of law relating to evidence Discovery, The Discovery ...
in legal proceedings such as
litigation A lawsuit is a proceeding by one or more parties (the plaintiff or claimant) against one or more parties (the defendant) in a civil court of law. The archaic term "suit in law" is found in only a small number of laws still in effect today. ...
, government investigations, or
Freedom of Information Act Freedom of Information Act may refer to the following legislations in different jurisdictions which mandate the national government to disclose certain data to the general public upon request: * Freedom of Information Act (United States) of 1966 * F ...
requests, where the information sought is in electronic format (often referred to as
electronically stored information Electronically stored information (ESI), for the purpose of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP) is information created, manipulated, communicated, stored, and best utilized in digital form, requiring the use of computer hardware and software ...
or ESI). Electronic discovery is subject to rules of
civil procedure Civil procedure is the body of law that sets out the rules and regulations along with some standards that courts follow when adjudicating civil lawsuits (as opposed to procedures in criminal law matters). These rules govern how a lawsuit or ca ...
and agreed-upon processes, often involving review for privilege and
relevance Relevance is the connection between topics that makes one useful for dealing with the other. Relevance is studied in many different fields, including cognitive science, logic, and library and information science. Epistemology studies it in gener ...
before data are turned over to the requesting party. Electronic information is considered different from paper information because of its intangible form, volume, transience and persistence. Electronic information is usually accompanied by
metadata Metadata (or metainformation) is "data that provides information about other data", but not the content of the data itself, such as the text of a message or the image itself. There are many distinct types of metadata, including: * Descriptive ...
that is not found in paper documents and that can play an important part as evidence (e.g. the date and time a document was written could be useful in a
copyright A copyright is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the exclusive legal right to copy, distribute, adapt, display, and perform a creative work, usually for a limited time. The creative work may be in a literary, artistic, ...
case). The preservation of metadata from electronic documents creates special challenges to prevent
spoliation Spoliation may refer to: *Looting * Spoliation of evidence in a criminal investigation * The deconstruction of buildings for Places and organizations * Front Multiculturel Anti Spoliation * Sanctuary of the Spoliation * Spoliation Advisory Pane ...
. In the United States, at the federal level, electronic discovery is governed by
common law Common law (also known as judicial precedent, judge-made law, or case law) is the body of law primarily developed through judicial decisions rather than statutes. Although common law may incorporate certain statutes, it is largely based on prece ...
, case law and specific statutes, but primarily by the
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure The Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (officially abbreviated Fed. R. Civ. P.; colloquially FRCP) govern civil procedure in United States district courts. They are the companion to the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. Rules promulgated by the ...
(FRCP), including amendments effective December 1, 2006, and December 1, 2015. In addition, state law and regulatory agencies increasingly also address issues relating to electronic discovery. In
England and Wales England and Wales () is one of the Law of the United Kingdom#Legal jurisdictions, three legal jurisdictions of the United Kingdom. It covers the constituent countries England and Wales and was formed by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Th ...
, Part 31 of the
Civil Procedure Rules The Civil Procedure Rules (CPR) were introduced in 1997 as per the Civil Procedure Act 1997 by the Civil Procedure Rule Committee and are the rules of civil procedure used by the Court of Appeal, High Court of Justice, and County Court in civi ...
and Practice Direction 31B on Disclosure of Electronic Documents apply. Other jurisdictions around the world also have rules relating to electronic discovery.


Stages of process

Th
Electronic Discovery Reference Model (EDRM)
is an ubiquitous diagram that represents a conceptual view of these stages involved in the ediscovery process.


Identification

The identification phase is when potentially responsive documents are identified for further analysis and review. In the United States, in '' Zubulake v. UBS Warburg'',
Shira Scheindlin Shira Ann Scheindlin (; née Joffe; born August 16, 1946) is an American attorney and jurist who served as a United States federal judge, United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. She ...
ruled that failure to issue a written
legal hold A legal hold is a process that an organization uses to preserve all forms of potentially relevant information when litigation is pending or reasonably anticipated. It is often issued when an organization receives a request for production in pendi ...
notice whenever litigation is reasonably anticipated will be deemed grossly negligent. This holding brought additional focus to the concepts of legal holds, eDiscovery, and electronic preservation. Custodians who are in possession of potentially relevant information or documents are identified.
Data mapping In computing and data management, data mapping is the process of creating data element mappings between two distinct data models. Data mapping is used as a first step for a wide variety of data integration tasks, including: * Data transforma ...
techniques are often employed to ensure a complete identification of data sources. Since the scope of data can be overwhelming or uncertain in this phase, attempts are made to reasonably reduce the overall scope during this phase - such as limiting the identification of documents to a certain date range or custodians.


Preservation

A duty to preserve begins upon the reasonable anticipation of litigation. Data identified as potentially relevant during preservation is placed in a
legal hold A legal hold is a process that an organization uses to preserve all forms of potentially relevant information when litigation is pending or reasonably anticipated. It is often issued when an organization receives a request for production in pendi ...
. This ensures that data cannot be destroyed. Care is taken to ensure this process is defensible, while the end goal is to reduce the possibility of data spoliation or destruction. Failure to preserve can lead to sanctions. Even if a court does not rule that the failure to preserve is negligence, they can force the accused to pay fines if the lost data puts the defense "at an undue disadvantage in establishing their defense."


Collection

Once documents have been preserved, collection can begin. The collection is the transfer of data from a company to its legal counsel, who will determine the relevance and disposition of data. Some companies that deal with frequent litigation have software in place to quickly place legal holds on certain custodians when an event (such as legal notice) is triggered and begin the collection process immediately. Other companies may need to call in a
digital forensics Digital forensics (sometimes known as digital forensic science) is a branch of forensic science encompassing the recovery, investigation, examination, and analysis of material found in digital devices, often in relation to mobile devices and com ...
expert to prevent the spoliation of data. The size and scale of this collection are determined by the identification phase.


Processing

During the processing phase, native files are prepared to be loaded into a
document review Document review (also known as doc review), in the context of legal proceedings, is the process whereby each party to a case sorts through and analyzes the documents and data they possess (and later the documents and data supplied by their opponen ...
platform. Often, this phase also involves the extraction of text and
metadata Metadata (or metainformation) is "data that provides information about other data", but not the content of the data itself, such as the text of a message or the image itself. There are many distinct types of metadata, including: * Descriptive ...
from the native files. Various data culling techniques are employed during this phase, such as deduplication and de-NISTing. Sometimes native files will be converted to a petrified, paper-like format (such as PDF or TIFF) at this stage to allow for easier redaction and bates-labeling. Modern processing tools can also employ advanced
analytic Analytic or analytical may refer to: Chemistry * Analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to learn their chemical composition and structure * Analytical technique, a method that is used to determine the concentration of a chemical ...
tools to help document review attorneys more accurately identify potentially relevant documents.


Review

During the review phase, documents are reviewed for responsiveness to discovery requests and for privilege. Different document review platforms and services can assist in many tasks related to this process, including rapidly identifying potentially relevant documents and culling documents according to various criteria (such as keyword, date range, etc.). Most review tools also make it easy for large groups of document review attorneys to work on cases, featuring collaborative tools and batches to speed up the review process and eliminate work duplication.


Analysis

Qualitative analysis of the content discovered in the collection phase and after being reduced by the preprocessing phase. The Evidence is looked at in context. Correlation analysis or contextual analysis to extract structured information relevant to the case. Structuring the data along a timeline or clustered by topic is common. For example, one can arrange evidence by how it relates members of a group as a form of
social network analysis Social network analysis (SNA) is the process of investigating social structures through the use of networks and graph theory. It characterizes networked structures in terms of ''nodes'' (individual actors, people, or things within the network) ...
.


Production

Documents are turned over to opposing counsel based on agreed-upon specifications. Often this production is accompanied by a load file, which is used to load documents into a document review platform. Documents can be produced either as native files or in a petrified format (such as
PDF Portable document format (PDF), standardized as ISO 32000, is a file format developed by Adobe Inc., Adobe in 1992 to present documents, including text formatting and images, in a manner independent of application software, computer hardware, ...
or
TIFF Tag Image File Format or Tagged Image File Format, commonly known by the abbreviations TIFF or TIF, is an image file format for storing raster graphics images, popular among graphic artists, the publishing industry, and photographers. TIFF is w ...
) alongside
metadata Metadata (or metainformation) is "data that provides information about other data", but not the content of the data itself, such as the text of a message or the image itself. There are many distinct types of metadata, including: * Descriptive ...
.


Presentation

Displaying and explaining evidence before audiences (at depositions, hearings, trials, etc.). The idea is that the audience understands the presentation, and non-professionals can follow the interpretation. Clarity and ease of understanding are the focus here. The native form of data needs to be abstracted, visualized, and broad into context for the presentation. The results of the analysis should be the subject of the presentation. The clear documentation should provide reproducibility.


Types of electronically stored information

Any data that is stored in an electronic form may be subject to production under common eDiscovery rules. This type of data has historically included email and office documents (spreadsheets, presentations, documents, PDFs, etc.) but can also include photos, video, instant messaging, collaboration tools, text (SMS), messaging apps, social media, ephemeral messaging, Internet of things (smart devices like smart watches,
virtual assistants Virtual may refer to: * Virtual image, an apparent image of an object (as opposed to a real object), in the study of optics * Virtual (horse), a thoroughbred racehorse * Virtual channel, a channel designation which differs from that of the actual ...
, and
smart home hubs ''SMart'' was a British CBBC television programme based on art, which began in 1994 and ended in 2009. The programme was recorded at BBC Television Centre in London. Previously it had been recorded in Studio A at Pebble Mill Studios in Birmingham ...
), databases, and other file types. Also included in ediscovery is "
raw data Raw data, also known as primary data, are ''data'' (e.g., numbers, instrument readings, figures, etc.) collected from a source. In the context of examinations, the raw data might be described as a raw score (after test scores). If a scientist ...
", which forensic investigators can review for hidden evidence. The original file format is known as the "native" format. Litigators may review material from ediscovery in one of several formats: printed paper, "native file", or a petrified, paper-like format, such as PDF files or TIFF images. Modern document review platforms accommodate the use of native files and allow for them to be converted to TIFF and
Bates Bates may refer to: Places * Bates, Arkansas, an unincorporated community * Bates, Illinois. an unincorporated community in Sangamon County * Bates, Michigan, a community in Grand Traverse County * Bates, New York, a hamlet in the town of Elli ...
-stamped for use in court.


Electronic messages

In 2006, the
U.S. Supreme Court The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) is the highest court in the federal judiciary of the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all U.S. federal court cases, and over state court cases that turn on question ...
's amendments to the
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure The Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (officially abbreviated Fed. R. Civ. P.; colloquially FRCP) govern civil procedure in United States district courts. They are the companion to the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. Rules promulgated by the ...
created a category for electronic records that, for the first time, explicitly named emails and instant message chats as likely records to be archived and produced when relevant. One type of preservation problem arose during the '' Zubulake v. UBS Warburg'' lawsuit. Throughout the case, the plaintiff claimed that the evidence needed to prove the case existed in emails stored on UBS' own computer systems. Because the emails requested were either never found or destroyed, the court found that they were more likely to exist than not. The court found that while the corporation's counsel directed that all potential discovery evidence, including emails, be preserved, the staff that the directive applied to did not follow through. This resulted in significant sanctions against UBS. To establish authenticity, some archiving systems apply a unique code to each archived message or chat. The systems prevent alterations to original messages, messages cannot be deleted, and unauthorized persons cannot access the messages. The formalized changes to the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in December 2006 and 2007 effectively forced civil litigants into a compliance mode with respect to their proper retention and management of
electronically stored information Electronically stored information (ESI), for the purpose of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP) is information created, manipulated, communicated, stored, and best utilized in digital form, requiring the use of computer hardware and software ...
(ESI). Improper management of ESI can result in a finding of spoliation of evidence and the imposition of one or more sanctions, including adverse inference jury instructions,
summary judgment In law, a summary judgment, also referred to as judgment as a matter of law or summary disposition, is a Judgment (law), judgment entered by a court for one party and against another party summarily, i.e., without a full Trial (law), trial. Summa ...
, monetary fines, and other sanctions. In some cases, such as ''Qualcomm v. Broadcom'', attorneys can be brought before the bar.


Databases and other structured data

Structured data typically resides in databases or datasets. It is organized in tables with columns, rows, and defined data types. The most common are Relational Database Management Systems (
RDBMS A relational database (RDB) is a database based on the relational model of data, as proposed by E. F. Codd in 1970. A Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) is a type of database management system that stores data in a structured forma ...
) that are capable of handling large volumes of data such as
Oracle An oracle is a person or thing considered to provide insight, wise counsel or prophetic predictions, most notably including precognition of the future, inspired by deities. If done through occultic means, it is a form of divination. Descript ...
, IBM Db2,
Microsoft SQL Server Microsoft SQL Server is a proprietary relational database management system developed by Microsoft using Structured Query Language (SQL, often pronounced "sequel"). As a database server, it is a software product with the primary function of ...
,
Sybase Sybase, Inc. was an enterprise software and services company. The company produced software relating to relational databases, with facilities located in California and Massachusetts. Sybase was acquired by SAP in 2010; SAP ceased using the Syba ...
, and
Teradata Teradata Corporation is an American software company that provides cloud database and Analytics, analytics-related software, products, and services. The company was formed in 1979 in Brentwood, California, as a collaboration between researchers a ...
. The structured data domain also includes spreadsheets (not all spreadsheets contain structured data, but those that have data organized in database-like tables), desktop databases like
FileMaker FileMaker is a cross-platform relational database application developed by Claris International, a subsidiary of Apple Inc. It integrates a database engine with a graphical user interface ( GUI) and security features, allowing users to visu ...
Pro and
Microsoft Access Microsoft Access is a database management system (DBMS) from Microsoft that combines the relational database, relational Access Database Engine (ACE) with a graphical user interface and software-development tools. It is a member of the Microsof ...
, structured
flat file A flat-file database is a database stored in a file called a flat file. Records follow a uniform format, and there are no structures for indexing or recognizing relationships between records. The file is simple. A flat file can be a plain t ...
s,
XML Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language and file format for storing, transmitting, and reconstructing data. It defines a set of rules for encoding electronic document, documents in a format that is both human-readable and Machine-r ...
files,
data mart A data mart is a structure/access pattern specific to ''data warehouse'' environments. The data mart is a subset of the data warehouse that focuses on a specific business line, department, subject area, or team. Whereas data warehouses have an en ...
s,
data warehouse In computing, a data warehouse (DW or DWH), also known as an enterprise data warehouse (EDW), is a system used for Business intelligence, reporting and data analysis and is a core component of business intelligence. Data warehouses are central Re ...
s, etc.


Audio

Voicemail is often discoverable under electronic discovery rules. Employers may have a duty to retain voicemail if there is an anticipation of litigation involving that employee. Data from voice assistants like Amazon Alexa and Siri have been used in criminal cases.


Reporting formats

Although petrifying documents to static image formats (
TIFF Tag Image File Format or Tagged Image File Format, commonly known by the abbreviations TIFF or TIF, is an image file format for storing raster graphics images, popular among graphic artists, the publishing industry, and photographers. TIFF is w ...
&
JPEG JPEG ( , short for Joint Photographic Experts Group and sometimes retroactively referred to as JPEG 1) is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital images, particularly for those images produced by digital photography. The degr ...
) had become the standard document review method for almost two decades, native format review has increased in popularity as a method for document review since around 2004. Because it requires the review of documents in their original file formats, applications and toolkits capable of opening multiple file formats have also become popular. This is also true in the ECM (Enterprise Content Management) storage markets, which converge quickly with ESI technologies. Petrification involves the conversion of native files into an image format that does not require the use of native applications. This is useful in the
redaction Redaction or sanitization is the process of removing sensitive information from a document so that it may be distributed to a broader audience. It is intended to allow the selective disclosure of information. Typically, the result is a document ...
of privileged or sensitive information since redaction tools for images are traditionally more mature and easier to apply on uniform image types by non-technical people. Efforts to redact similarly petrified PDF files by incompetent personnel have removed redacted layers and exposed redacted information, such as social security numbers and other private information. Traditionally, electronic discovery vendors had been contracted to convert native files into TIFF images (for example, 10 images for a 10-page
Microsoft Word Microsoft Word is a word processor program, word processing program developed by Microsoft. It was first released on October 25, 1983, under the name Multi-Tool Word for Xenix systems. Subsequent versions were later written for several other platf ...
document) with a load file for use in image-based discovery review database applications. Increasingly, database review applications have embedded native file viewers with TIFF capabilities. With both native and image file capabilities, it could either increase or decrease the total necessary storage since there may be multiple formats and files associated with each individual native file. Deployment, storage, and best practices are becoming especially critical and necessary to maintain cost-effective strategies. Structured data are most often produced in delimited text format. When the number of tables subject to discovery is large or relationships between the tables are of essence, the data are produced in native database format or as a database backup file.


Common issues

A number of different people may be involved in an electronic discovery project: lawyers for both parties, forensic specialists, IT managers, and records managers, amongst others. Forensic examination often uses specialized terminology (for example, "image" refers to the acquisition of digital media), which can lead to confusion. While attorneys involved in case litigation try their best to understand the companies and organizations they represent, they may fail to understand the policies and practices that are in place in the company's IT department. As a result, some data may be destroyed ''after'' a legal hold has been issued by unknowing technicians performing their regular duties. Many companies are deploying software that properly preserves data across the network to combat this trend, preventing inadvertent data spoliation. Given the complexities of modern litigation and the wide variety of information systems on the market, electronic discovery often requires IT professionals from both the attorney's office (or vendor) and the parties to the litigation to communicate directly to address technology incompatibilities and agree on production formats. Failure to get expert advice from knowledgeable personnel often leads to additional time and unforeseen costs in acquiring new technology or adapting existing technologies to accommodate the collected data.


Emerging trends


Alternative collection methods

Currently the two main approaches for identifying responsive material on custodian machines are: (1) where physical access to the organizations network is possible - agents are installed on each custodian machine which push large amounts of data for indexing across the network to one or more servers that have to be attached to the network or (2) for instances where it is impossible or impractical to attend the physical location of the custodian system - storage devices are attached to custodian machines (or company servers) and then each collection instance is manually deployed. In relation to the first approach there are several issues: * In a typical collection process large volumes of data are transmitted across the network for indexing and this impacts normal business operations * The indexing process is not 100% reliable in finding responsive material * IT administrators are generally unhappy with the installation of agents on custodian machines * The number of concurrent custodian machines that can be processed is severely limited due to the network bandwidth required New technology is able to address problems created by the first approach by running an application entirely in memory on each custodian machine and only pushing responsive data across the network. This process has been patented and embodied in a tool that has been the subject of a conference paper. In relation to the second approach, despite self-collection being a hot topic in eDiscovery, concerns are being addressed by limiting the involvement of the custodian to simply plugging in a device and running an application to create an encrypted container of responsive documents. Regardless of the method adopted to collect and process data there are few resources available for practitioners to evaluate the different tools. This is an issue due to the significant cost of eDiscovery solutions. Notwithstanding the limited options for obtaining trial licences for the tools, a significant barrier to the evaluation process is creating a suitable environment in which to test such tools. Adams suggests the use of the Microsoft Deployment Lab which automatically creates a small virtual network running under HyperV.


Technology-assisted review

Technology-assisted review (TAR)—also known as computer-assisted review or predictive coding—involves the application of
supervised machine learning In machine learning, supervised learning (SL) is a paradigm where a model is trained using input objects (e.g. a vector of predictor variables) and desired output values (also known as a ''supervisory signal''), which are often human-made labels. ...
or rule-based approaches to infer the relevance (or responsiveness, privilege, or other categories of interest) of ESI. Technology-assisted review has evolved rapidly since its inception ''circa'' 2005. Following research studies indicating its effectiveness, TAR was first recognized by a U.S. court in 2012, by an Irish court in 2015, and by the High Court in England in 2016. In 2015, US District Court for the Southern District of New York has declared that it is "
black letter law In common law legal systems, black-letter law refers to well-established legal rules that are no longer subject to reasonable dispute. Black-letter law can be contrasted with legal theory or unsettled legal issues. History and etymology In an 1 ...
that where the producing party wants to utilize TAR for document review, courts will permit it."S.D.N.Y (2015)
Rio Tinto v. Vale
Retrieved August 14, 2016
The following year, that court stated, Maura R. Grossman and
Gordon Cormack Gordon Villy Cormack is a professor emeritus in the David R. Cheriton School of Computer Science at the University of Waterloo and co-inventor of Dynamic Markov Compression. Cormack's research with Maura R. Grossman has been cited in cases of ...
have defined TAR as:
A process for Prioritizing or Coding a Collection of Documents using a computerized system that harnesses human judgments of one or more Subject Matter Expert(s) on a smaller set of Documents and then extrapolates those judgments to the remaining Document Collection. Some TAR methods use Machine Learning Algorithms to distinguish Relevant from Non-Relevant Documents, based on Training Examples Coded as Relevant or Non-Relevant by the Subject Matter Experts(s), while other TAR methods derive systematic Rules that emulate the expert(s)’ decision-making process. TAR processes generally incorporate Statistical Models and/or Sampling techniques to guide the process and to measure overall system effectiveness.


Convergence with information governance

Anecdotal evidence for this emerging trend points to the business value of
information governance Information governance, or IG, is the overall strategy for information at an organization. Information governance balances the risk that information presents with the value that information provides. Information governance helps with legal compli ...
(IG), defined by
Gartner Gartner, Inc. is an American research and advisory firm focusing on business and technology topics. Gartner provides its products and services through research reports, conferences, and consulting. Its clients include large corporations, gover ...
as "the specification of decision rights and an accountability framework to encourage desirable behavior in the valuation, creation, storage, use, archival, and deletion of information. It includes the processes, roles, standards, and metrics that ensure the effective and efficient use of information in enabling an organization to achieve its goals." As compared to eDiscovery, information governance as a discipline is relatively new. Yet, there is traction for convergence. eDiscovery—a multi-billion-dollar industry—is rapidly evolving, ready to embrace optimized solutions that strengthen cybersecurity (for cloud computing). Since the early 2000s, eDiscovery practitioners have developed skills and techniques that can be applied to information governance. Organizations can apply the lessons learned from eDiscovery to accelerate their path to a sophisticated information governance framework. The Information Governance Reference Model (IGRM) illustrates the relationship between key stakeholders and the Information Lifecycle and highlights the transparency required to enable effective governance. The updated IGRM v3.0 emphasizes that Privacy & Security Officers are essential stakeholders. This topic is addressed in an article entitled "Better Ediscovery: Unified Governance and the IGRM," published by the American Bar Association.


See also

*
Catalyst Repository Systems Catalyst Repository Systems is a privately held company based in Denver, Colorado, US, which develops, hosts and supports cloud-based software for the management of electronic legal discovery. Founded in 2000, the company’s main product is Ins ...
*
Data mining Data mining is the process of extracting and finding patterns in massive data sets involving methods at the intersection of machine learning, statistics, and database systems. Data mining is an interdisciplinary subfield of computer science and ...
*
Data retention Data retention defines the policies of persistent data and records management for meeting legal and business data archival requirements. Although sometimes interchangeable, it is not to be confused with the Data Protection Act 1998. The differe ...
*
Discovery (law) Discovery, in the law of common law jurisdictions, is a phase of pretrial procedure in a lawsuit in which each party, through the law of civil procedure, can obtain Evidence (law), evidence from other parties. This is by means of methods of dis ...
*
Early case assessment Early case assessment refers to estimating risk (cost of time and money) to prosecute or defend a legal case. Global organizations deal with legal discovery and disclosure requests for electronically stored information "ESI" and paper documents o ...
*
Electronically stored information (Federal Rules of Civil Procedure) Electronically stored information (ESI), for the purpose of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP) is information created, manipulated, communicated, stored, and best utilized in digital form, requiring the use of computer hardware and software ...
*
File hosting service A file-hosting service, also known as cloud-storage service, online file-storage provider, or cyberlocker, is an internet hosting service specifically designed to host user files. These services allow users to upload files that can be accessed o ...
*
Forensic search Forensic search is an emerging field of computer forensics. Forensic search focuses on user created data such as email files, cell phone records, office documents, PDFs and other files that are easily interpreted by a person. Forensic search diff ...
*
Information governance Information governance, or IG, is the overall strategy for information at an organization. Information governance balances the risk that information presents with the value that information provides. Information governance helps with legal compli ...
*
Legal governance, risk management, and compliance Legal governance, risk management, and compliance (LGRC) refers to the complex set of processes, rules, tools and systems used by corporate legal departments to adopt, implement and monitor an integrated approach to business problems. While Governa ...
*
Machine learning Machine learning (ML) is a field of study in artificial intelligence concerned with the development and study of Computational statistics, statistical algorithms that can learn from data and generalise to unseen data, and thus perform Task ( ...
*
Telecommunications data retention Data retention defines the policies of persistent data and records management for meeting legal and business data archival requirements. Although sometimes interchangeable, it is not to be confused with the Data Protection Act 1998. The different ...


References


External links


Federal Judicial Center: Materials on Electronic Discovery

American Bar Association article on eDiscoveryeDiscovery with AI (Artificial intelligence)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Electronic Discovery Civil procedure Email Digital forensics Information governance Records management