Origins
El Puente was begun by José Mario Rodríguez (b. 1940, Güira de Melena - d. 2002, Madrid), a young poet who perceived the post-"The next day, in theThe books they shared included authors such asJosé Martí José Julián Martí Pérez (; 28 January 1853 – 19 May 1895) was a Cuban nationalism, nationalist, poet, philosopher, essayist, journalist, translator, professor, and publisher, who is considered a Cuban national hero because of his role in ...National Library, he and Eugenio introduced me to Ana Justina Cabrera and after that to Ana María Simo. We immediately began to exchange opinions, argue about certain points, and on others agree. From that day forward, we scheduled appointments or met up in the afternoons in the gardens of the Writer's Union, in the park, at the entrance to a series ofSoviet films The cinema of the Soviet Union includes films produced by the constituent republics of the Soviet Union reflecting elements of their pre-Soviet culture, language and history, albeit they were all regulated by the central government in Moscow. ...at the Cinemateca de Cuba, at a theater function in Mella, in the hallways of an exhibit of Portocarrero, at a concert of Bola or Burke; the afternoon would turn into night and we would go to listen to a concert of '' filin'' at El Gato Tuerto, orjazz Jazz is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its roots are in blues, ragtime, European harmony, African rhythmic rituals, spirituals, h ...at the Atelier. We went up and down La Rampa and ended up at dawn at the Malecón readingpoems Poetry (from the Greek language, Greek word ''poiesis'', "making") is a form of literature, literary art that uses aesthetics, aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meaning (linguistics), meanings in addition to, or in ..., singingboleros Bolero is a genre of song which originated in eastern Cuba in the late 19th century as part of the trova tradition. Unrelated to the older Spanish dance of the same name, bolero is characterized by sophisticated lyrics dealing with love. It h ..., and telling each other our hopes and dreams."Fulleda León, Gerardo. (2002).
Aquella luz de La Habana
. ''La isla en peso'' (no. 10). Retrieved 2007-12-16.
Impact
In practical terms, the impact of the group can be seen in what and who they published. Self-subsidized and publishing with editorial independence, even after they were persuaded to ally themselves with the Writers Union (Diversity
The core group had as many women as men, and women are central in the list of published works (see Publications). Most of the writers were poor or"It's true that El Puente had a lot of black writers, likeNancy Morejón Nancy Morejón (born August 7, 1944 in Havana) is a Cuban poet, critic, teacher, and essayist. She was a recipient of the Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath Award and has been called "the best known and most widely translated woman poet of post ..., Ana Justina Cabrera, Gerardo Fulleda León, Eugenio Hernández,Georgina Herrera Georgina Herrera (23 April 1936 – 13 December 2021) was a Cuban writer of poetry, novels and short stories. She also wrote drama and scripts for radio and television series, as well as for film.Pedro Pérez Sarduy Pedro Pérez Sarduy (born 1943) is an Afro-Cuban writer and broadcaster, who has published poetry and fiction, in addition to journalism.avana'spoorest neighborhoods; a lot of people that went to these meetings came from these "mansions." They had few economic resources. They were neighborhoods that were largely black. Ana Justina and Eugenio lived nearby, just behind the Library." Many members of the group were alsolesbian A lesbian is a homosexual woman or girl. The word is also used for women in relation to their sexual identity or sexual behavior, regardless of sexual orientation, or as an adjective to characterize or associate nouns with female homosexu ...orgay ''Gay'' is a term that primarily refers to a homosexual person or the trait of being homosexual. The term originally meant 'carefree', 'cheerful', or 'bright and showy'. While scant usage referring to male homosexuality dates to the late ....
Climate of homophobia
WhileChe Guevara Ernesto "Che" Guevara (14th May 1928 – 9 October 1967) was an Argentines, Argentine Communist revolution, Marxist revolutionary, physician, author, Guerrilla warfare, guerrilla leader, diplomat, and Military theory, military theorist. A majo ...once reportedly threw a book across the room in disgust because it was written by gay authorVirgilio Piñera Virgilio Piñera Llera (August 4, 1912 – October 18, 1979) was a Cuban author, playwright, poet, short story writer, essayist and translator. His best known works are the poem ''La isla en peso'' (1943), the collection of short stories ''Cuento ...,Cuba Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba (largest island), Isla de la Juventud, and List of islands of Cuba, 4,195 islands, islets and cays surrounding the main island. It is located where the ...didn't need the Argentine revolutionary to introduce homophobia. Already a part ofHispanic The term Hispanic () are people, Spanish culture, cultures, or countries related to Spain, the Spanish language, or broadly. In some contexts, Hispanic and Latino Americans, especially within the United States, "Hispanic" is used as an Ethnici ...andWestern culture Western culture, also known as Western civilization, European civilization, Occidental culture, Western society, or simply the West, refers to the Cultural heritage, internally diverse culture of the Western world. The term "Western" encompas ...s, it was underlying in such works asJosé Martí José Julián Martí Pérez (; 28 January 1853 – 19 May 1895) was a Cuban nationalism, nationalist, poet, philosopher, essayist, journalist, translator, professor, and publisher, who is considered a Cuban national hero because of his role in ...'s 1894 "Our America," in which the poet and revolutionary not only offered an early analysis of the growing U.S. role in the region, but dismissed loyalists to Spain as delicate ones "that are men and don't want to do the work of men!" and men that think they're Parisians or Madrileños, "talking walks on the Prado, leaning against lampposts, or eating sorbets at Tortonis." After therevolution In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elements ..., one of the first occasionshomophobia Homophobia encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who identify or are perceived as being lesbian, Gay men, gay or bisexual. It has been defined as contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, or ant ...went from a private attitude to public policy was during the National Meeting of Poets (Encuentro Nacional de Poetas) held inCamagüey Camagüey () is a city and municipality in central Cuba and is the nation's third-largest city with more than 333,000 inhabitants. It is the capital of the Camagüey Province. It was founded as Santa María del Puerto del Príncipe in 1514, by Sp ...in 1960 shortly before El Puente was begun. Colonel Alberto Bayo, a representative of the government, used the opportunity to launch an invective against homosexuals, calling them "bad seed," and warning they were going to "pervert therevolution In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elements ...." That night large placards appeared that said, "Fags, dykes, out!" In 1965, the government set upconcentration camps A concentration camp is a prison or other facility used for the internment of political prisoners or politically targeted demographics, such as members of national or ethnic minority groups, on the grounds of national security, or for exploit ..., euphemistically calledMilitary Units to Aid Production Military Units to Aid Production or UMAPs (Unidades Militares de Ayuda a la Producción) were agricultural forced labor camps operated by the Cuban government from November 1965 to July 1968 in the Province of Camagüey. The UMAP camps served as ...(UMAP), where "social scum" (mostly gay men, but alsoJehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses is a Christian denomination that is an outgrowth of the Bible Student movement founded by Charles Taze Russell in the nineteenth century. The denomination is nontrinitarian, millenarian, and restorationist. Russell co-fou ..., and those perceived as disaffected) were interned behind barbed wire and used as forced labor until the UMAPs ended in 1967. Echoing the slogan on the gates ofAuschwitz Auschwitz, or Oświęcim, was a complex of over 40 concentration and extermination camps operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland (in a portion annexed into Germany in 1939) during World War II and the Holocaust. It consisted of Auschw ...(and ironically,José Martí José Julián Martí Pérez (; 28 January 1853 – 19 May 1895) was a Cuban nationalism, nationalist, poet, philosopher, essayist, journalist, translator, professor, and publisher, who is considered a Cuban national hero because of his role in ...), the camps were emblazoned with the words: "Work will make you men."
Ginsberg and gay scapegoating
As social pressures intensified, and El Puente become increasingly well known, members of the group began to draw more and more attention from state security. In 1964, Ana María Simo was jailed for several weeks and interrogated. The openly gay men in the group, such as José Mario, started being regularly detained, targeted for their homosexuality, but also because they read the wrong books ( Gide), listened to the wrong music (The Beatles The Beatles were an English Rock music, rock band formed in Liverpool in 1960. The core lineup of the band comprised John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr. They are widely regarded as the Cultural impact of the Beatle ...) and once or twice had drunken scenes in the middle of the night. A couple of members were caught stealing library books. In January 1965,Allen Ginsberg Irwin Allen Ginsberg (; June 3, 1926 – April 5, 1997) was an American poet and writer. As a student at Columbia University in the 1940s, he began friendships with Lucien Carr, William S. Burroughs and Jack Kerouac, forming the core of th ..., the openly gay poet,Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ..., and drug-user, was invited to the island by Casa de las Américas to be part of the jury for that year's poetry prize. Besides meeting writers likeJulio Cortázar Julio Florencio Cortázar (26 August 1914 – 12 February 1984; ) was an Argentine and naturalised French novelist, short story writer, poet, essayist, and translator. Known as one of the founders of the Latin American Boom, Cortázar influenc ...,Mario Vargas Llosa Jorge Mario Pedro Vargas Llosa, 1st Marquess of Vargas Llosa (28 March 1936 – 13 April 2025) was a Peruvian novelist, journalist, essayist and politician. Vargas Llosa was one of the most significant Latin American novelists and essayists a ...,Camilo José Cela Camilo José Cela y Trulock, 1st Marquess of Iria Flavia (; 11 May 1916 – 17 January 2002) was a Spanish novelist, poet, story writer and essayist associated with the Generation of '36 movement. He was awarded the 1989 Nobel Prize in Liter ...andNicanor Parra Nicanor Segundo Parra Sandoval (5 September 1914 – 23 January 2018) was a Chilean physicist and poet. He has been considered one of the most influential Spanish-language Chilean poets of the 20th century. Parra described himself as an " an ..., Ginsberg found his way to members of El Puente who had been corresponding with him, and intended to publish a translation of ''Howl Howl most often refers to: * Howling, an animal vocalization in many canine species * "Howl" (poem), a 1956 poem by Allen Ginsberg Howl or The Howl may also refer to: Film * '' The Howl'', a 1970 Italian film * ''Howl'' (2010 film), a 2010 Am ...''."His visits to my house, and that we appeared together in various public places, like the Writers Union cafeteria and at a reception at the Casa de las Américas and his explosive declarations about currentThough on that occasion charges were dropped, afterwards, publishing and distributing were increasingly difficult for El Puente, which was already falling apart from internal and external pressures. José Mario moved back into his parents' house, and rarely stepped into the street where he was vulnerable: "They detained me 17 times." Books at the printers were confiscated, and finally, "the publisher was abruptly closed by governmental authorities."politics Politics () is the set of activities that are associated with decision-making, making decisions in social group, groups, or other forms of power (social and political), power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of Social sta ...and the persecution of homosexuals, put us, as they say, on everybody's lips. We were grist for therumor A rumor (American English), or rumour (British English; American and British English spelling differences#-our, -or, see spelling differences; derived from Latin 'noise'), is an unverified piece of information circulating among people, especial ...mill, and you know the power of rumors in a dictatorship, the power that they can have according to the intentions of the people that spread them. One day we were leaving a play at the Auditorium theater, that Ginsberg had invited us to, when Manolo (Manuel Ballagas, son of poet ), and I were brusquely detained in a street near the theater, thrown violently in a dark car, and taken to a police station. Some people that knew about the operation immediately told the administration of the Writers Union that came in person to the station. Nevertheless, the interrogations lasted all night--we were only let out in the morning. We were formally accused of the crime of 'consorting with foreigners.' In a matter of days, Ginsberg was expelled from the country."
''El Caimán'' vs. El Puente
Harassment peaked in 1966 after the group had already ceased publication, when El Puente was publicly attacked by Jesús Díaz, an editor of ''El Caimán Barbudo'', a literary magazine created and funded by theCommunist Communism () is a sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology within the socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a socioeconomic order centered on common ownership of the means of production, di ...Youth. Unlike El Puente, they were straight, mostly men, almost all white, and largely recruited from the university. Jesus Diaz was an assistant professor. He used the ''La Gaceta'', a magazine of the Writers Union, to publicly declare that members of El Puente were "generally bad as artists" but, more dangerously, "the most dissolute and negative segment of their generation" and "a politically and aesthetically erroneous phenomenon." Coming just a few months after the internment of gay men had officially begun, his statement was a shock to the group. "They declared a war of extermination on us." A week after Diaz' first attack appeared, José Mario was summoned to aconcentration camp A concentration camp is a prison or other facility used for the internment of political prisoners or politically targeted demographics, such as members of national or ethnic minority groups, on the grounds of national security, or for exploitati .... In El Puente's response, written and signed by Ana María Simo, she defended the merits of El Puente, and called Diaz's statement an "''acto de delación intelectual''" an "intellectualized denunciation". Jesús Diaz published a long rebuttal, repeating his attack, and personally taking aim at Ana María Simo as well.Díaz, Jesús,
Jesús Díaz responde a Ana María Simo: El Último Puente
". ''La Gaceta de Cuba'', no. 50, April–September 1966. Years later, Jesús Díaz, who himself left the island forSpain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ..., blamed it on the age, and literary quarrels, "Nevertheless... I recognize what I did and I'd like to offer my regrets to Ana María Simo and other authors that could have felt attacked by me at that time."Díaz, Jesús, "El fin de otra ilusión. A propósito de la quiebra de 'El Caimán Barbudo' y la clausura de 'Pensamiento Crítico'", ''Encuentro de la Cultura Cubana'', Madrid, primavera-verano 2000, número 16-17). Guillermo Rodríguez Rivera, another one of the editors, later defended El Caimán, blaming theCommunist Communism () is a sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology within the socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a socioeconomic order centered on common ownership of the means of production, di ...Youth for forbidding them, "to publish any young writer or artist which was homosexual. It wasn't a decision that we made at the magazine…"
Sequel
After the exchange with ''El Caimán'', and the internment of José Mario, the work of El Puente was largely erased. Some members emigrated, and those who remained were "endiablados", demonized. For decades,Nancy Morejón Nancy Morejón (born August 7, 1944 in Havana) is a Cuban poet, critic, teacher, and essayist. She was a recipient of the Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath Award and has been called "the best known and most widely translated woman poet of post ...was hesitant to speak out in groups: "I thought if I raised my hand to say something, somebody would be sure to say, "Shut up, those people from El Puente..." I can tell you that now, but before we didn't talk about these things..." Scholars have begun to research the group, and in its July–August 2005 issue, the ''Gaceta de Cuba'' published a series of related pieces in a first attempt to grapple with the history of El Puente. Since then, other books have appeared, including the ''Dinámicas culturales de los años 60 en Cuba y otras zonas creativas de conflicto'' (Doctoral Dissertation; 2007) and ''Ediciones El Puente y los vacíos del canon literario cubano'' (2016), both by María Isabel Alfonso, and the 2011 work ''Ediciones El Puente en la Habana de los años 60: Lecturas críticas y libros de poesía'',edited and introduced by Jesús J. Barquet. José Mario died inMadrid Madrid ( ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in Spain, most populous municipality of Spain. It has almost 3.5 million inhabitants and a Madrid metropolitan area, metropolitan area population of approximately 7 million. It i ...in 2002.
Publications
Below is the list of El Puente books in order of publication between 1961 and 1965 in Havana, under the direction of José Mario and co-direction of Ana María Simo, as compiled by José Mario in "La verídica historía de Ediciones El Puente, La Habana, 1961–1965". * José Mario, ''La Conquista'' (poems) * Santiago Ruiz, ''Hiroshima'' (poems) * Mercedes Cortázar, ''El Largo Canto'' (poems) * Silvia, ''27 pulgadas de vacío'' (poems) * José Mario, ''De la Espera y el Silencio'' (poems) * Gerardo Fulleda León, ''Algo en la Nada'' (poems) * José Mario, ''Clamor Agudo'' (poems) * Ana Justina, ''Silencio'' (poems) *Guillermo Cuevas Carrión Guy Cuevas is a Cuban-born writer, musician, and Paris disc jockey. Born Guillermo Cuevas Carrión, he worked the turntables at Club Sept, and Le Palace before becoming the artistic director, first of Les Bains-Douches, then the Barrio Latino. As ..., ''Ni un Sí ni un No'' (stories) * José Mario, ''Obras para niños'' (drama, 1st and 2nd ed.) *Ana María Simo Ana María Simo is a New York playwright, essayist and novelist. Born in Cuba, educated in France, and writing in English, she has collaborated with such experimental artists as composer Zeena Parkins, choreographer Stephanie Skura and filmmakers ..., ''Las fábulas'' (stories) * Reinaldo Felipe, ''Acta'' (poem) * Manuel Granados, ''El orden presentido'' (poems) * José Mario, ''A través'' (poems) *Nancy Morejón Nancy Morejón (born August 7, 1944 in Havana) is a Cuban poet, critic, teacher, and essayist. She was a recipient of the Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath Award and has been called "the best known and most widely translated woman poet of post ..., ''Mutismos'' (poems) * Mariano Rodríguez Herrera, ''La mutación'' (stories) * ''Novísima Poesía Cubana I'' (poetry anthology) * Georgina Herrera, ''GH'' (poems) * Joaquín G. Santana, ''Poemas en Santiago'' (poems) * Belkis Cuza Malé, ''Tiempos del Sol'' (poems) * Rogelio Martínez Furé, ''Poesía Yoruba'' (poetry anthology) * Jesús Abascal, ''Soroche y otros cuentos'' (stories) * ''Nicolás Dorr'', (drama) * J. R. Brene, ''Santa Camila de la Habana Vieja'' (drama) * José Mario, ''La torcida raíz de tanto daño'' (poems) *Miguel Barnet --> Miguel is a given name and surname, the Portuguese and Spanish form of the Hebrew name Michael. It may refer to: Places * Pedro Miguel, a parish in the municipality of Horta and the island of Faial in the Azores Islands * São Miguel (disam ..., ''Isla de güijes'' (poems) * Ada Abdo, ''Mateo y las sirenas'' (stories) * Évora Tamayo, ''Cuentos para abuelas enfermas'' (stories) *Nancy Morejón Nancy Morejón (born August 7, 1944 in Havana) is a Cuban poet, critic, teacher, and essayist. She was a recipient of the Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath Award and has been called "the best known and most widely translated woman poet of post ..., ''Amor, ciudad atribuida'' (poems) * Ana Garbinski, ''Osaín de un pie'' (poems) * Rodolfo Hinostroza, ''Consejeros del Lobo'' (poems) * ''Segunda Novísima de Poesía Cubana'' (1) * Silvia Barros, ''Teatro infantil'' (drama) * ''Primera Novísima de Teatro'' (2) * Angel Luis Fernández Guerra, ''La nueva noche'' (stories) * El Puente, ''Resumen Literario'' I (literary review) (3) * Antonio Álvarez, ''Noneto'' (stories) * José Milián, ''Mani Omi Omo'' (drama) * José Mario, ''Muerte del Amor por la Soledad'' (poems) Pending publication: * El Puente, ''Resumen Literario'' II (literary review) (4) * Manuel Ballagas, ''Con temor'' (stories) (5) (1), (2), (3), (4) (5). Books confiscated at the printers used by Ediciones el Puente in 1965, Havana, Cuba.
See also
*LGBT rights in Cuba Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) rights in Cuba have significantly varied throughout modern history. Cuba is now considered progressive, with vast improvements in the 21st century for such rights. Following the 2022 Cuban ...* El Mejunje
References
{{reflist Cuban literature LGBTQ book publishing companies LGBTQ culture in Cuba