''Micrurus fulvius'', commonly known as the eastern coral snake, Behler John L.; King, F. Wayne (1979). ''The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 743 pp., 657 color plates. LCCCN 79-2217. . (''Micrurus fulvius'', p. 681 + Plates 617, 618). common coral snake, American cobra, Wright, Albert Hazen; Wright, Anna Allen (1957). ''Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada''. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates, a Division of Cornell University Press. (7th printing, 1985). 1,105 pp. (in 2 volumes). . (''Micrurus fulvius'', pp. 890–897, Map 63, Figures 256–257). and

more More may refer to: Computing * MORE (application), outline software for Mac OS * more (command), a shell command * MORE protocol, a routing protocol * Missouri Research and Education Network Music Albums * ''More!'' (album), by Booka Shade, ...

, is a

species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

of highly venomous

coral snake Coral snakes are a large group of elapid snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups, the Old World coral snakes and New World coral snakes. There are 27 species of Old World coral snakes, in three genera ('' Calliophis'', '' Hemibungar ...

in the

family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...

Elapidae Elapidae (, commonly known as elapids , from , variant of "sea-fish") is a family of snakes characterized by their permanently erect fangs at the front of the mouth. Most elapids are venomous, with the exception of the genus '' Emydocephalus ...

that is

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...

to the southeastern United States. The family also contains the

cobra COBRA or Cobra, often stylized as CoBrA, was a European avant-garde art group active from 1948 to 1951. The name was coined in 1948 by Christian Dotremont from the initials of the members' home countries' capital cities: Copenhagen (Co), Brussels ...

s and

sea snakes Sea snakes, or coral reef snakes, are elapid snakes that inhabit marine environments for most or all of their lives. They belong to two subfamilies, Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae. Hydrophiinae also includes Australasian terrestrial snakes, w ...

. Its appearance is sometimes confused with that of the scarlet snake (''Cemophora coccinea'') or

scarlet kingsnake The scarlet kingsnake (''Lampropeltis elapsoides'') is a species of kingsnake found in the southeastern and eastern portions of the United States. Like all kingsnakes, they are venomous snake, nonvenomous. They are found in pine flatwoods, hydric ...

(''Lampropeltis elapsoides''), which are nonvenomous mimics. No subspecies are currently recognized. Although the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed ''M. fulvius'' as "Least Concern" in 2007 based on its total global population size (Hammerson, 2007), it is of significant conservation concern at the local level throughout most of its range; it is listed as Endangered in North Carolina (North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission, 2014), Imperiled in South Carolina (South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, 2014), and of Highest Conservation Concern in Alabama (Outdoor Alabama, 2017).

Taxonomy

Micrurus tener ''Micrurus tener'', commonly known as the Texas coral snake, is a species of snake in the family Elapidae. It is native to the southern United States and adjacent northeastern and central Mexico. Six subspecies are recognized as being valid, in ...

'' used to be considered a subspecies of ''M. fulvius''. However DNA analysis suggests that it may be its own species as the analysis of microsatellites loci seems to place ''M. tener'' as a distinct species from ''M. fulvius''.

Common names

Among the many common names for ''Micrurus fulvius'' are eastern coral snake, American cobra, candy-stick snake, common coral snake, coral adder, Elaps harlequin snake, Florida coral snake, harlequin coral snake, North American coral snake, red bead snake, thunder-and-lightning snake, and, in Spanish, ''serpiente-coralillo arlequín'' (literally "harlequin coral snake").

Description

''Micrurus fulvius'' is usually less than in total length (tail included). The maximum reported total lengths are for a specimen in Florida (

Neill Neill is an Irish surname, and may refer to * A. S. Neill (1883-1973), British educator and author * Alan Webster Neill (1868-1960), Canadian politician * Alec Neill (b.1950), New Zealand politician * Ben Neill (b.1957), American composer * Bo ...

, 1958) and (

Roze Roze may refer to: People *Janis Roze, herpetologist *Jean Roze, French textile producer *Pierre-Gustave Roze (1812–1862), French naval commander *, French mycologist; see Marasmiaceae *Magdalena Roze, Australian meteorologist *Marie Roze, French ...

, 1996). Males have longer tails than females, but females reach a greater total length. Campbell, Jonathan A.; Lamar, William W. (2004). ''The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere''. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates. 870 pp., 1,500 plates. . The

dorsal scales In snakes, the dorsal scales are the longitudinal series of plates that encircle the body, but do not include the ventral scales. Campbell JA, Lamar WW (2004). ''The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere''. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publis ...

are smooth, and are in 15 rows at midbody. The

ventral scales In snakes, the ventral scales or gastrosteges are the enlarged and transversely elongated scales that extend down the underside of the body from the neck to the anal scale. When counting them, the first is the anteriormost ventral scale that cont ...

number 197–217 in males and 219–233 in females. There are 40–47

subcaudals In snakes, the subcaudal scales are the enlarged plates on the underside of the tail. Wright AH, Wright AA (1957). ''Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada''. Comstock Publishing Associates, a Division of Cornell University Press. (7t ...

in males and 30–37 in females. The anal plate is divided.

Aposematic colour pattern

The color pattern consists of a series of rings that encircle the body: wide red and black rings separated by narrow yellow rings. The head is black from the

rostral scale The rostral scale, or rostral, in snakes and other scaled reptiles is the median plate on the tip of the snout that borders the mouth opening. Wright AH, Wright AA (1957). ''Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada''. Ithaca and London: ...

to just behind the eyes. This snake commonly has a black snout as well as black eyes and then a yellow band on the back half of their head behind the eyes. The red rings are usually speckled with black.The bright coloration is likely

aposematic Aposematism is the Advertising in biology, advertising by an animal, whether terrestrial or marine, to potential predation, predators that it is not worth attacking or eating. This unprofitability may consist of any defenses which make the pr ...

, meaning that it is associated with a danger (venom) to predators. People who live in its natural range are often taught a folk rhyme as children such as: "Red next to black, safe from attack; red next to yellow, you're a dead fellow," or "Red touching black, friend of Jack; red touching yellow, you're a dead fellow", or simply "red and yellow kill a fellow". These rhymes are useful in teaching children to distinguish king snakes (''Lampropeltis'' ssp.), which are considered helpful predators of vermin such as rats and mice, from the venomous coral snake, which should only be handled by an experienced biologist or herpetologist. However, this rhyme is only applicable to species in the United States, and cannot be used reliably in the Caribbean, or Central and South America.

Distribution

''Micrurus fulvius'' has historically ranged throughout the Southeastern United States from the southern tip of Florida to the Sandhills of North Carolina. ''M. fulvius'' is found in the Southeastern United States from southeastern

North Carolina North Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, South Carolina to the south, Georgia (U.S. stat ...

, south through

South Carolina South Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders North Carolina to the north and northeast, the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, and Georgia (U.S. state), Georg ...

and peninsular Florida, and westward through southern

Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States Georgia may also refer to: People and fictional characters * Georgia (name), a list of pe ...

Alabama Alabama ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South, Deep Southern regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gu ...

and

Mississippi Mississippi ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Alabama to the east, the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Louisiana to the s ...

to southeastern

Louisiana Louisiana ( ; ; ) is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It borders Texas to the west, Arkansas to the north, and Mississippi to the east. Of the 50 U.S. states, it ranks 31st in area and 25 ...

. Coral snakes in Texas, western

, and southeastern

Arkansas Arkansas ( ) is a landlocked state in the West South Central region of the Southern United States. It borders Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, and Oklahoma ...

are now considered to be a different species, ''

'', which was previously considered a subspecies of ''M. fulvius''. ''M. fulvius'' may be found at altitudes of near sea level to about . The current range of the eastern coral snake is predicted to expand as a result of climate change. The ranges of both ''M. fulvius'' and ''M. tener'' are expected to change with the climate warming. Future models predict that the ranges of both species could expand up to northward

Habitat

''Micrurus fulvius'' occurs in upland

mesophytic Mesophytes are terrestrial plants which are adapted to neither particularly dry nor particularly wet environments. An example of a mesophytic habitat would be a rural temperate meadow, which might contain goldenrod, clover, oxeye daisy, and '' Ros ...

and tropical hammocks in Florida, as well as glade land, high pine, scrub oak and

live oak Live oak or evergreen oak is any of a number of oaks in several different sections of the genus ''Quercus'' that share the characteristic of evergreen foliage. These oaks are generally not more closely related to each other than they are to o ...

hammock A hammock, from Spanish , borrowed from Taíno language, Taíno and Arawak language, Arawak , is a sling made of fabric, rope, or netting, suspended between two or more points, used for swing (seat), swinging, sleeping, or Human relaxation, res ...

slash pine ''Pinus elliottii'', commonly known as slash pine,Family, P. P. (1990). Pinus elliottii Engelm. slash pine. ''Silvics of North America: Conifers'', (654), 338. is a Pinophyta, conifer tree native to the Southeastern United States. Slash pine is n ...

and

wiregrass Wiregrass is a common name for several plants Wiregrass may refer to: * Poaceae grasses ** ''Aristida'' (three-awns), especially ''Aristida stricta'' (Pineland Three-awn), '' Aristida junciformis'' and ''Aristida purpurea'' (Purple Three-awn), of ...

flatwoods Flatwoods, pineywoods, pine savannas and longleaf pine–wiregrass ecosystem are terms that refer to an ecological community in the southeastern coastal plain of North America. Flatwoods are an ecosystem maintained by wildfire or prescribed fir ...

. In southern

and Florida, it is found in dry areas with open ground that are bushy but not heavily vegetated. It is associated with sandy ridges in

and sandy creek bottoms in

. ''M. fulvius'' prefers sandy soils at a relatively fine scale within scrubby habitats. It is rarer in North and South Carolina, but is more typically found there in the scrub oak forests and pitch pine habitats near the coast, as well as the coastal plain of the southeast. They prefer costal plains and because of their secretive nature need vegetative debris to hide in.

Diet

''Micrurus fulvius'' eats primarily other snakes and attenuate lizards, but it is also known to eat birds, frogs, fish, insects, and as mentioned, other, typically smaller snakes, including other coral snakes. ''M. fulvius'' will attack the head of its prey first in order to envenomate it. Dissertation, University of Texas at Arlington. ''M. fulvius'' will hold on to the prey until it becomes paralyzed. After the prey is paralyzed, the snake will consume it.

Reproduction

Sexually mature ''Micrurus fulvius'' breed from late summer and early autumn to late spring and early summer. Then bred females lay eggs in mid-summer. Females of ''M. fulvius'' are reported to lay three to 12 eggs in June that hatch in September. Hatchlings are in total length (tail included). Males mature 11–16 months after hatching while females mature approximately 26 months after hatching. Adult females are typically larger than males. There has been no recorded incidence of any type of parental care for hatchlings.

Ecology

Behavior

Coral snakes of the genus ''Micrurus'' spend most of their time underground ( fossoriality) or sheltering under suitable objects, but can be active on the surface during the day in early spring or at other times when rainfall has saturated the ground. They appear not to be generally surface active at night. Coral snakes are largely diurnal making night sightings rare Males are most active in the late fall or early spring, when they search for mates, and females are most active in late summer and throughout the fall, when they search for prey that will allow them to build energy reserves for the next season's reproductive effort. Coral snakes will attempt to escape if discovered, and individuals may engage in complex defensive behavior if prevented from doing so. This includes hiding the head beneath the body coils, mimicking the head with their tail (for example, crawling backward and striking with the tail), erratic body movements, and death feigning. Other individuals can be touchy, and will readily bite if restrained in any way.

Venom

The venom of ''Micrurus fulvius'' is a potent

neurotoxin Neurotoxins are toxins that are destructive to nervous tissue, nerve tissue (causing neurotoxicity). Neurotoxins are an extensive class of exogenous chemical neurological insult (medical), insultsSpencer 2000 that can adversely affect function ...

with a median of 1.3 mg/kg SC. Envenomation causes rapid paralysis and respiratory failure in prey. In humans, symptoms include local pain,

sialorrhea Hypersalivation or hypersialosis is the excessive production of saliva. It has also been defined as increased amount of saliva in the mouth, which may also be caused by decreased clearance of saliva.Medscape > HypersalivationBy Erica Brownfield. P ...

paresthesia Paresthesia is a sensation of the skin that may feel like numbness (''hypoesthesia''), tingling, pricking, chilling, or burning. It can be temporary or Chronic condition, chronic and has many possible underlying causes. Paresthesia is usually p ...

, ptosis, slurred speech, double vision, blurred vision, weakness, paralysis, fasciculation and

diplopia Diplopia is the simultaneous perception of two images of a single object that may be displaced in relation to each other. Also called double vision, it is a loss of visual focus under regular conditions, and is often voluntary. However, when occ ...

. In severe cases, envenomation may progress to respiratory arrest and muscular paralysis eventually leading to

respiratory failure Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system, meaning that the arterial oxygen, carbon dioxide, or both cannot be kept at normal levels. A drop in the oxygen carried in the blood is known as hypoxemia; a r ...

. It is estimated that 5 mg of venom can be lethal to humans. ''M. fulvius'' bites and fatalities are very rare. Only two documented fatalities were attributed to this species in the 1950s, and only one has been reported since

Wyeth Wyeth Pharmaceuticals Inc. was a pharmaceutical company until it was purchased by Pfizer in 2009. The company was founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1860 as John Wyeth and Brother. Its headquarters moved to Collegeville, Pennsylvania, a ...

antivenin Antivenom, also known as antivenin, venom antiserum, and antivenom immunoglobulin, is a specific treatment for envenomation. It is composed of antibodies and used to treat certain venomous bites and stings. Antivenoms are recommended only if t ...

became available for it in the 1960s. The snakes have a mortality rate between 5–20%. The most recent fatality attributed to the eastern coral snake occurred in 2006 (confirmed in 2009 report). The victim failed to seek proper medical attention and died several hours after being bitten, becoming the first fatality caused by ''M. fulvius'' in over 40 years. ''M. fulvius'' does not account for many cases of snakebite in the U.S., with only about 100 bites each year. The snake is considered secretive and generally reluctant to bite (its venomous potential was still being debated in the 1880s), and envenomation (i.e., secretion of venom during a strike) is thought to occur in only 40% of all bites. Although, a study conducted in 1987 found that envenomation occurred in 75% of coral snake bites. Unlike New World

pit vipers The Crotalinae, commonly known as pit vipers,Mehrtens JM (1987). ''Living Snakes of the World in Color''. New York: Sterling Publishers. 480 pp. . or pit adders, are a subfamily of vipers found in Asia and the Americas. Like all other vipers, ...

, this New World coral snake cannot control the amount of primarily

neurotoxic Neurotoxicity is a form of toxicity in which a biological, chemical, or physical agent produces an adverse effect on the structure or function of the central and/or peripheral nervous system. It occurs when exposure to a substance – specifical ...

venom injected. Dry bites often result from a near miss or deflection; although the venom an adult coral snake holds is enough to kill up to five adults, it cannot release all its venom in a single bite. Historically, however, the mortality rate was estimated to be about 10–20%, with death occurring in as little as one to two hours, or as much as 26 hours after the bite. This is not that surprising, since the LD₁₀₀ for humans is estimated to be 4–5 mg of dried venom, while the average venom yield is 2–6 mg with a maximum of more than 12 mg. This is probably why current standard hospital procedure in the U.S. is to start with antivenin therapy for coral snake bites, even if no symptoms are found yet.

Antivenin availability

Wyeth discontinued the manufacture of coral snake antivenin in 2010, citing a lack of profitability.

Pfizer Pfizer Inc. ( ) is an American Multinational corporation, multinational Pharmaceutical industry, pharmaceutical and biotechnology corporation headquartered at The Spiral (New York City), The Spiral in Manhattan, New York City. Founded in 184 ...

has also decided to halt production of its antivenin for similar reasons (see Coral snake antivenom shortage). Pfizer indicates that antivenom is available and one source states that production has resumed. in