Doublet (linguistics)

In etymology, doublets (alternatively etymological twins or twinlings) are words in a given language that share the same etymological root. Doublets are often the result of loanwords being borrowed from other languages. While doublets may be synonyms, the characterization is usually reserved for words that have diverged significantly in meaning: for example, the English doublets ''pyre'' and ''fire'' are distinct terms with related meanings that both ultimately descend from the Proto-Indo-European word *'.

Words with similar meanings but subtle differences contribute to the richness of modern English, and many of these are doublets. A good example consists of the doublets ''frail'' and ''fragile''. (These are both ultimately from the Latin adjective , but ''frail'' evolved naturally through its slowly changing forms in Old French and Middle English, whereas ''fragile'' is a learned borrowing directly from Latin in the 15th century.)

Another example of nearly synonymous doublets is ''aperture'' and ''overture'' (the commonality behind the meanings is "opening"). Doublets may also develop contrasting meanings, such as the terms ''host'' and ''guest'', which come from the same PIE word *' and already existed as a doublet in Latin, and then Old French, before being borrowed into English. Doublets also vary with respect to how far their forms have diverged. For example, the connection between ''levy'' and ''levee'' is easy to guess, whereas the connection between ''sovereign'' and ''soprano'' is harder to guess.

Origin

Doublets can develop in various ways, according to which route the two forms took from the origin to their current form. Complex, multi-step paths are possible, though in many cases groups of terms follow the same path. Simple paths are discussed below, with the simplest distinction being that doublets in a given language can have their root in the same language (or an ancestor), or may originate in a separate language.

Native origin

Most simply, a native word can at some point split into two distinct forms, staying within a single language, as with English ''too'' which split from ''to''.

Alternatively, a word may be inherited from a parent language, and a cognate borrowed from a separate sister language. In other words, one route was direct inheritance, while the other route was inheritance followed by borrowing. In English this means one word inherited from a Germanic source, with, e.g., a Latinate cognate term borrowed from Latin or a Romance language. In English this is most common with words which can be traced back to Indo-European languages, which in many cases share the same proto-Indo-European root, such as Romance '' beef'' and Germanic '' cow''. However, in some cases the branching is more recent, dating only to proto-Germanic, not to PIE; many words of Germanic origin occur in French and other Latinate languages, and hence in some cases were both inherited by English (from proto-Germanic) and borrowed from French or another source – see List of English Latinates of Germanic origin. The forward linguistic path also reflects cultural and historical transactions; often the name of an animal comes from Germanic while the name of its cooked meat comes from Romance. Since English is unusual in that it borrowed heavily from two distinct branches of the same language family tree – Germanic and Latinate/Romance – it has a relatively high number of this latter type of etymological twin. See list of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English for further examples and discussion.

Less commonly, a native word may be borrowed into a foreign language, then reborrowed back into the original language, existing alongside the original term. An English example is ''animation'' and ''anime'' "Japanese animation", which was reborrowed from Japanese '. Such a word is sometimes called a ' (German for "one who wanders back").

Borrowed origin

In case of twins of foreign origin, which consist of two borrowings (of related terms), one can distinguish if the borrowing is of a term and a descendant, or of two cognate terms (siblings).

Etymological twins are often a result of chronologically separate borrowing from a source language. In the case of English, this usually means once from French during the Norman invasion, and again later, after the word had evolved separately in French. An example of this is ''warranty'' and ''guarantee''.

Another possibility is borrowing from both a language and its daughter language. In English this is usually Latin and some other Romance language, particularly French – see Latin influence in English. The distinction between this and the previous is whether the source language has changed to a different language or not.

Less directly, a term may be borrowed both directly from a source language and indirectly via an intermediate language. In English this is most common in borrowings from Latin, and borrowings from French that are themselves from Latin; less commonly from Greek directly and through Latin.

In case of borrowing cognate terms, rather than descendants, most simply an existing doublet can be borrowed: two contemporary twin terms can be borrowed.

More remotely, cognate terms from different languages can be borrowed, such as ''sauce'' (Old French) and '' salsa'' (Spanish), both ultimately from Latin, or '' tea'' (Dutch ') and ''chai'' (Hindi), both ultimately from Chinese. This last pair reflects the history of how tea has entered English via different trade routes.

By language

English

Many thousands of English examples can be found, grouped according to their earliest deducible Indo-European ancestor. In some cases over a hundred English words can be traced to a single root. Some examples in English include:

*'' host'' and '' guest'': via Latin and Germanic
*'' strange'' and '' extraneous'': Old French, Latin
*''word'' and ''verb'': Germanic, Latin
*'' shadow, shade'', and ''shed'', all from Old English ' "shadow, shade"
*'' stand, stay, state, status'', and '' static'': native, Middle French, Latin (twice), and Ancient Greek via Latin, all from the same Indo-European root
* '' chief'', ''chef'', ''cape'', '' capo'', '' caput'', and ''head'': French (twice), Latin via French, Italian, Latin, and Germanic, all from the same Indo-European word *' "head")
*'' secure'' and '' sure'': Latin, French
*'' capital'', '' cattle'', and '' chattel'': Latin, Norman French, and standard French
*''plant'' and '' clan'': Latin, Latin via Old Irish
*''right, rich, raj, rex, regalia, regal, reign, royal'', and '' real'': Germanic, Celtic, Sanskrit, Latin (twice), French (three times), and Portuguese cognates, all ultimately from Proto-Indo-European '' h₃reǵ-'' "to straighten, to right oneself, right, just"
*''carton'' and ''cartoon'', both ultimately Italian ' "carton"
*'' ward'' and '' guard'': Old English, French, both originally Germanic; also ''warden'' and '' guardian''
*'' chrism'' and '' cream'': Greek via Latin, Greek via Latin and French
*'' cow'' and '' beef'': Germanic via Old English, Latin via French; both ultimately Proto-Indo-European '' gʷṓws''
*'' pipe'' and ''fife'': both from Germanic, via Old English and German
*''wheel'', '' cycle'', and '' chakra'': Germanic, Greek via Latin, Sanskrit, all from Proto-Indo-European *' "wheel"
*'' frenetic'' and '' frantic'': Greek, via Old French and Latin
*''cave'' and '' cavern'', from Latin ', via French and Germanic languages
*''direct'', from Latin, and '' derecho'', from Latin via Spanish
*''price, prise, prize, praise, pry'' (a lever), and '' prix'', all from French, some diverged in English
*'' corn, kernel'' and ''grain'', all ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *', the first two natively via Proto-Germanic (g → k), the last via Latin, borrowed from Old French
*''clock, cloche, cloak'', and ''glockenspiel'', from Medieval Latin ' "bell", via Middle Dutch, French (twice) and German
*'' pique and pike'' (weapon), both from Middle French '
*'' mister, master, meister, maestro, mistral'' (a Mediterranean wind), and ''magistrate'' are all ultimately derived from Latin ' "teacher"
*'' equip, ship, skiff'', and '' skipper'', from Old French, Old English, Old Italian via Middle French, and Middle Dutch, all from Proto-Germanic ' "ship"
*'' domain'', ''demesne'', ''dominion'', and '' dungeon'', all from French
*'' Slav'' and ''slave'', from Latin and French, both ultimately from Proto-Slavic via Greek
* ''hemp'', '' cannabis'', and '' canvas'', the former natively through Proto-Germanic, the latter two via Greek and Latin, all ultimately from either Proto-Indo-European or a very early shared borrowing from Scythian or Thracian
* ''discrete'' and ''discreet'', from Latin, diverged in English, now homophones
* ''apothecary'', ''boutique'', and '' bodega'', all ultimately from Greek via Latin and then, respectively, via Old French, via Old Occitan and Middle French, and via Spanish.
* '' care, charity, cheer, cherish'', and '' whore'', from French, Anglo-Norman, and Germanic, all ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *', *' "dear; loved"
* ''garden'' and ''yard'', the former via Anglo-Norman, the latter through Germanic.
* '' zealous'' and '' jealous'', the former from Greek, the latter via Old French.
*''tradition'' and ''treason'': Latin via Old French.
* '' short'', '' shirt'', '' skirt'' and '' curt'', the first two from Old English, the third from Old Norse and the fourth from Latin, all ultimately from the Proto-Indo-European *', "to cut"
* '' reave'' and '' rob'', the former from Old English, the latter from Frankish and Old High German via Latin, via Anglo-Norman, all ultimately from Proto-Germanic , "to steal"
* '' think'' and '' thank'', both ultimately from the Proto-Indo-European *''teng-'', "to think". "Thank" meant "to give kind thoughts".
* '' arm'' and '' art'', from Old English and Old French, both ultimately from Proto-Indo-European '' h₂er-'', "to fit, to fix, to put together, to slot"
* '' know'', '' can'', '' note'', '' notice'', '' noble'', '' ignorant'', '' recognize'', '' normal'', ''cognition'', '' narrate'', '' notorious'', '' gnome'', '' paranoid'', ''nous'', and '' gnosis''. From Old English (twice), Old French (5 times), Latin (4 times), and Greek (4 times). All can be derived partially or entirely from Proto-Indo-European '' ǵneh₃-'' "to recognise, to know".
* ''horse'', '' hurry'', '' carry'', and '' car''. From Old English (twice) and Gaulish (twice). All ultimately originate from Proto-Indo-European '' ḱers-'' "to run".
* '' the'', ''that'', '' this'', and '' there''. All originate from Proto-Indo-European '' só'' "this, that", via Old English.
* '' blink'', ''blank'', '' bleach'', and '' bleak''. All originate from Proto-Indo-European '' bʰleyǵ-'' "to shine" via Proto-Germanic.
* ''green'', '' grey'', ''grass'', and '' grow''. All originate from Proto-Indo-European '' gʰreh₁-'' "to grow" via Old English.
* ''yellow'', ''gold'', '' glow'', and ''gall''. All originate from Proto-Indo-European '' ǵʰelh₃-'' via Old English.
* ''king'', '' kind'', '' kin'', ''nation'', '' gentle'', ''general'', '' generic'', ''genre'', ''gender'', '' generous'', ''nature'', '' naive'', '' native'', '' germ'', ''genie'', ''engine'', '' generate'', ''genus'', '' genius'', '' genitalia'', '' genesis'', ''gonad'', and ''gene''. From Old English (3 times), Old French (13 times), Latin (4 times) and Greek (3 times). All ultimately from Proto-Indo-European '' ǵenh₁-'' "to produce, to beget, to give birth".
* ''bear'', '' brown'', '' bore'', ''berry'', '' fierce'', '' feral'', '' ferocious'', '' panther'', and '' therapod'', from Old English (4 times), Old French (twice), Latin, and Greek (twice), all ultimately from Proto-Indo-European '' ǵʰwer-'' "wild animal".
* '' strait'', '' strict'' and '' stretto'', from French, Latin and Italian
*''policy'' (" principle of management"), ''polity'' and ''police'', from various French forms derived from the Latin '' polītīa'' and Ancient Greek '' polīteíā''. ''policy'' (" insurance contract") is an unrelated, homographic and homophonous false cognate.

There are many more doublets from Greek, where one form is a vernacular borrowing and the other a learned borrowing, such as ''scandal'' and ''slander'', both from σκάνδαλον.

Norman vs. standard or Modern French

Many words of French origin were borrowed twice or more. There were at least three periods of borrowing: one that occurred shortly after the Norman Conquest and came from Norman French, one in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries from standard (Parisian) French at the time when English nobles were switching from French to English, and a third one during the sixteenth to nineteenth century, when France was at the height of its power and international influence. Examples of doublets from the first and second periods are ''catch'' vs. ''chase'', ''cattle'' vs. ''chattel'', and ''warden'' vs. ''guardian''. More recent borrowings are often distinguished by maintaining the French spelling and pronunciation, e.g. ''chef'' (vs. ''chief''), ''pâté'' (vs. ''paste''), ''fête'' (vs. ''feast''). There are multiple doublets caused by the ''w'' → ''g'' and ''ca'' → ''cha'' sound changes, which happened in standard French but not Norman French. Several of these examples also reflect changes that occurred after Old French which caused the possible environments of to be greatly reduced.

Chinese

Derivative cognates are a classification of Chinese characters which have similar meanings and often the same etymological root, but which have diverged in pronunciation and meaning. An example is the doublet and . At one time they were pronounced similarly and meant "old (person)." ( in Standard Mandarin) has retained this meaning, but now mainly means "examine".

Differing literary and colloquial readings of certain Chinese characters are common doublets in many Chinese varieties, and the reading distinctions for certain phonetic features often typify a dialect group.
For a given Chinese variety, colloquial readings typically reflect native vernacular phonology. Literary readings are used in some formal settings ( recitation, some loanwords and names) and originate from other, typically more prestigious varieties.
Sometimes literary and colloquial readings of the same character have different meanings. For example, in Cantonese, the character can have the colloquial pronunciation ("inexpensive"), and the literary pronunciation ("flat").

Irish

The words ''píosa'' and ''cuid'' (both meaning "part" or "portion") form an Irish doublet, both from the Proto-Celtic root *''kʷesdis''. This root became in Gaulish *''pettyā'', then was borrowed into Late Latin as ''pettia'', Anglo-Norman ''piece'', then Middle English ''pece'', before being borrowed into Middle Irish as ''pissa'', which became modern ''píosa''. In Old Irish, *''kʷesdis'' became ''cuit'', which in modern Irish is ''cuid''.

Italian

* ''macina'' (mill), ''macchina'' (machine): come from Latin ''machina''
* ''soldo'', ''solido'' and ''sodo'' come from Latin ''solidus''
* ''sego'' (animal fat in slaughtered animals) and the medical term ''sebo'' (substance produced by skin) come from Latin ''sebum''
* ''duca'' (duke), doge (chief of Italian state), duce (borrowing from Latin) come from Latin ducem.
* ''colpo'' and ''golfo'' come from Greek ''kolpos'' through Latin.
* ''ciao'', ''schiavo'' and ''slavo'', ''sloveno'' and slovacco come from Greek ''sklavos''
* ''bestia'' (beast, borrowed from Latin) and ''biscia'' (grass snake) come from Latin ''bestia''
* ''clan'' (through Irish and English) and ''pianta'' (plant). The words ultimately come from Latin ''planta''.
* ''esame'', Latin borrowing meaning exam, and ''sciame'', native stock word meaning swarm, both come from Latin ''examen''
* ''prezzo'' (price) and ''pregio'' (quality) come from ''praetium''
* ''causa'' (cause) and ''cosa'' (thing) both come from Latin ''causa''. Italian ''causa'' is a learnt borrowing from Latin, while the Italian word ''cosa'' is inherited from vulgar Latin.
* ''sport'' and ''deportare''. Sport is an English borrowing for 'physical activity' while ''deportare'' has the same English meaning of "to deport", that is evicting someone from a country. Both ''sport'' and ''deportare'' come ultimately from Latin dēportō

Japanese

In Japanese, doublets are most significant in borrowings from Chinese, and are visible as different on'yomi (Sino-Japanese readings) of kanji characters. There have been three major periods of borrowing from Chinese, together with some modern borrowings. These borrowings are from different regions (hence different Chinese varieties) and different periods, and thus the pronunciations have varied, sometimes widely. However, due to consistent Chinese writing, with cognate morphemes represented by the same character, the etymological relation is clear. This is most significant at the level of morphemes, where a given character is pronounced differently in different words, but in some cases the same word was borrowed twice. These have been very valuable to scholars for reconstructing the sounds of Middle Chinese, and understanding how the pronunciations differed between Chinese regions and varied over time.

New Indo-Aryan

In Hindi and other New Indo-Aryan languages, members of native doublets are identified as either ' ('became that'), which is ultimately derived from Sanskrit but underwent changes through time, or ' ('same as that'), which is borrowed directly from literary Sanskrit. For example, Hindi 'tiger' is derived by historical stages () from Sanskrit 'tiger'. Meanwhile, Hindi has also directly borrowed () the Sanskrit word ', meaning 'tiger' in a more literary register.

Several doublets in Hindustani, which has two standard forms of Hindi and Urdu, come from common Proto-Indo-Iranian roots, with one descending via Sanskrit and another via Persian. These may have stayed synonyms or diverged into different meanings. One example where both patterns can be seen is from the Sanskrit vār (water) and Persian bârân (rain), both from Proto-Indo-Iranian wáHr̥. The Hindustani words for rain include varṣā and barsāt from Sanskrit as well as bāriś from Persian. Meanwhile, the word varṣ from the same root has come to mean year, though often the Persian word sāl is used instead. This word is also a doublet, in this case of the Sanskrit word śarad, which has come to mean the season fall in Hindi.

Polish

Triplets:
* ', ', ' 'vampire' (see the etymology of ')
* ' 'piss' (vulgar), ' 'spout' (informal), ' 'pee' (childish, euphemism; the latter is possibly an irregular diminutive of the former)
* ', ', ': from German ', Dutch ', and Latin '; cognate to Italian ', English ''master, mister''

Spanish

As with many languages in Europe, a great deal of borrowing from written Latin – ' (Latinisms), or ' (learned words) – occurred during the Renaissance and the early modern era. Because Spanish is itself a Romance language already with many native words of Latin ancestry (transmitted orally, so with natural sound changes), the later written borrowing created a number of doublets. Adding to this was Spain's conquest by the Moors in the Middle Ages, leading to another vector for creating doublets (Latin to Arabic to Spanish).

Welsh

Welsh contains many doublets of native origin, where a single Indo-European root has developed along different paths in the language. Examples of this are:

* ' "boiled, boiling" and ' "enthusiastic" from Proto-Indo-European *' "to boil, brew"
* ' "bed" and ' "place" from Proto-Indo-European *' "to lie (down)"
* ' "spring", ' "dawn" and ' "swallow (bird)" from Proto-Indo-European *' "spring"
* ' "breath" and ' "soul" from Proto-Indo-European *' "to breathe"
* ' "mead" and ' "drunk" from Proto-Indo-European *' "honey, mead"

In addition to native doublets, Welsh has borrowed extensively over the centuries, particularly from Latin and English. This has led to many more doublets in the language, including many from Latin that entered Welsh via English borrowings. Examples include:

* ' "God", ' "day" (both native), ' "Thursday" (Latin) and ' "journey" (Latin via French via English) from Proto-Indo-European *' "to be bright; sky, heaven"
* ' "yoke (pulling frame)" (native) and ' "yoga" (Sanskrit via English) from Proto-Indo-European *' "to join, to tie together"
* ' "free" (native), ' "argument" (Germanic via Latin and French via English) and ' "friend" (English) from Proto-Indo-European *' "to love, please"
* ' "Scotland" (Irish) and ' "Alps" (Latin via English) from Proto-Indo-European *''albʰós'' "white"
* ' "needle", ' "to spin" (both native), ' "nerve" (Latin via English) and ' "neuro-" (Greek via English) from Proto-Indo-European *' "to spin, sew"

See also

* Reborrowing
* Cognate, specifically, those within the same language
* False friends that may develop in the same way

References

External links

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Doublet (Linguistics)
Historical linguistics
Types of words