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A dolium (plural: dolia) is a large
earthenware Earthenware is glazed or unglazed Vitrification#Ceramics, nonvitreous pottery that has normally been fired below . Basic earthenware, often called terracotta, absorbs liquids such as water. However, earthenware can be made impervious to liquids ...
vase or vessel used in ancient Roman times for the fermentation of alcoholic beverages, as well as storage or
transportation of goods Transport (in British English) or transportation (in American English) is the intentional movement of humans, animals, and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, land ( rail and road), water, cable, pipelines, an ...
. They are similar to
kvevri Kvevri or qvevri ( ka, ქვევრი ) - also known as ch'uri ( ka, ჭური ) in Western Georgia - are large earthenware vessels used for the fermentation, storage and aging of traditional Georgian wine. Resembling large, egg-shaped amp ...
, large Georgian vessels used to ferment wine.


Description

The dolium was a large jug or container made of
fired clay Fire clay is a range of refractory clays used in the manufacture of ceramics, especially fire brick. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines fire clay very generally as a "mineral aggregate composed of hydrous silicates of alumin ...
. Oval in shape, with a wide mouth and rim, it was much larger than the
amphora An amphora (; ; English ) is a type of container with a pointed bottom and characteristic shape and size which fit tightly (and therefore safely) against each other in storage rooms and packages, tied together with rope and delivered by land ...
, a similar pottery container. The dolium had no neck or handles and, in many cases, could measure up to six
feet The foot (: feet) is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. In many animals with feet, the foot is an organ at the terminal part of the leg made up of ...
in height. Some dolia have a rounded body tapering into a flat bottom, while more frequently, dolia maintained a rounded bottom. They were lined with pitch or wax in order to contain or process liquids and solid foods. Some sources mention dolia holding up to 50 quadrantals, equivalent to . There was no standard size for dolia.


History

Much of what modern scholars know about the dolium comes from ancient
Latin literature Latin literature includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in the Latin language. The beginning of formal Latin literature dates to 240 BC, when the first stage play in Latin was performed in Rome. Latin literatur ...
. Sources which address agriculture, significantly '' De agri cultura'' by
Cato the Elder Marcus Porcius Cato (, ; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor (), the Elder and the Wise, was a Roman soldier, Roman Senate, senator, and Roman historiography, historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He wa ...
, '' Res rustica'' by
Varro Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BCE) was a Roman polymath and a prolific author. He is regarded as ancient Rome's greatest scholar, and was described by Petrarch as "the third great light of Rome" (after Virgil and Cicero). He is sometimes call ...
, '' Res rustica'' by
Columella Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (, Arabic: ) was a prominent Roman writer on agriculture in the Roman Empire. His in twelve volumes has been completely preserved and forms an important source on Roman agriculture and ancient Roman cuisin ...
, and the '' Res rustica'' by Palladius, help us determine the size, appearance and purposes of the dolia. Because these sources deal with rural matters of the time, they also give scholars an insight into the life and
culture of ancient Rome The culture of ancient Rome existed throughout the almost 1,200-year history of the civilization of Ancient Rome. The term refers to the culture of the Roman Republic, later the Roman Empire, which at its peak covered an area from present-day ...
in addition to specific information about use of the dolium. Another noteworthy source is the '' Digest'' of
Justinian I Justinian I (, ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 527 to 565. His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovatio imperii'', or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was ...
. It is a collection of quotations from earlier works of Roman jurists that discuss the importance of the integration of dolia in ancient Roman society. These sources, along with a variety of other less significant sources where dolia are only briefly mentioned, characterize the dolia as the largest type of earthenware vessel made by the Romans.Brenni, G. M. R. 1985. “The Dolia and the Sea-Borne Commerce of
Imperial Rome The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Romans conquered most of this during the Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of effective sole rule in 27 BC ...
.” MA thesis,
Texas A&M University Texas A&M University (Texas A&M, A&M, TA&M, or TAMU) is a public university, public, Land-grant university, land-grant, research university in College Station, Texas, United States. It was founded in 1876 and became the flagship institution of ...
.


Use and purpose

There is evidence to support the claim of many classical archaeologists that dolia were used exclusively on land for the processing and storage of foodstuffs. For instance, dolia were manufactured for the most part by travelling specialist
potters A potter is someone who makes pottery. Potter may also refer to: Places United States *Potter, originally a section on the Alaska Railroad, currently a neighborhood of Anchorage, Alaska, US * Potter, Arkansas * Potter, Nebraska * Potters, New Je ...
or by workshops that were involved principally in production of architectural ceramics. Dolia were used in food production areas, such as farmhouses, and selling points like taverns and town warehouses. Dolia were also used in theatres for their acoustic qualities (presumably for special
sound effect A sound effect (or audio effect) is an artificially created or enhanced sound, or sound process used to emphasize artistic or other content of films, television shows, live performance, animation, video games, music, or other media. In m ...
s). The two methods of storing dolia were to either bury them half way in the ground or standing under a roof. They were used to hold goods such as
wine Wine is an alcoholic drink made from Fermentation in winemaking, fermented fruit. Yeast in winemaking, Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruit and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Wine is most often made f ...
, grape husks,
olive oil Olive oil is a vegetable oil obtained by pressing whole olives (the fruit of ''Olea europaea'', a traditional Tree fruit, tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin) and extracting the oil. It is commonly used in cooking for frying foods, as a cond ...
, amurca,
wheat Wheat is a group of wild and crop domestication, domesticated Poaceae, grasses of the genus ''Triticum'' (). They are Agriculture, cultivated for their cereal grains, which are staple foods around the world. Well-known Taxonomy of wheat, whe ...
, and other common grains. Many dolia hold record amounts of 40-50 quadrantals (quadrantals being the general amount held in one amphora). Unlike the amphora, the dolium was not regarded as an accessory and sold along with the wine that it contained. Rather, dolia were fixed facilities not employed for the distribution of wine. Its major purpose was for the permanent storage capacity of goods. However, dolia were also commonly used in conjunction with transport facilities such as
merchant ships A merchant ship, merchant vessel, trading vessel, or merchantman is a watercraft that transports cargo or carries passengers for hire. This is in contrast to pleasure craft, which are used for personal recreation, and naval ships, which are ...
and temporary storage places like harbor warehouses. Surprisingly, given their construction, dolia were often used in overseas transport. Recent archaeological discoveries indicate two or three rows of dolia were sometimes positioned along the keel of a merchant ship, apparently cemented in place to prevent shifting with the ship's movement at sea. This technique allowed dolia to serve as fixed receptacles for the transport of wine. The high prices of dolia is evidence to indicate that their incorporation into maritime transportation represented a substantial investment of funds. Also, given their great weight and bulk, replacement must have represented both an inconvenience and an expense. Thus, extraordinary caution must have been employed when handling the dolia to preserve and maintain their useful life. Ethnographic research indicates that in many cases dolia remained in use for several decades, and therefore, it seems plausible to suggest that dolia regularly remained in prime use for up to 20–30 years and perhaps longer.


Dolia in maritime commerce


Positions of dolia in ships

While the mystery of the dolia in relation to maritime commerce is still being researched, archaeologists have substantial evidence from shipwrecks to support its significant, yet short role. One of the most striking evidences of the use of dolia in the commerce of food supplies is their presence on board Roman merchant ships. There have been at least seven
shipwrecks A shipwreck is the wreckage of a ship that is located either beached on land or sunken to the bottom of a body of water. It results from the event of ''shipwrecking'', which may be intentional or unintentional. There were approximately thre ...
discovered carrying dolia, dating between the 1st century BC and the 3rd century AD. Three of the most interesting and identifiable shipwrecks that lend themselves to study of dolia are the ''
Diano Marina Diano Marina (, or simply ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Province of Imperia in the Italian region of Liguria, located about southwest of Genoa and about northeast of Imperia. Geography The municipality of Diano Marina contains the ' ...
'', the '' Petit Congloue'', and the '' La Giraglia'' shipwrecks. The ''Diano Marina'' shipwreck (IM,
Liguria Liguria (; ; , ) is a Regions of Italy, region of north-western Italy; its Capital city, capital is Genoa. Its territory is crossed by the Alps and the Apennine Mountains, Apennines Mountain chain, mountain range and is roughly coextensive with ...
, Italy) was discovered with fifteen dolia still intact. Its relatively deep underwater location provided sufficient protection from both natural and human disturbances to allow for a more detailed study on the position of dolia on board this Roman merchant ship. The dolia from this shipwreck were found to be of two different shapes, corresponding to two different positions on board the ship. Four long, cylindrical dolia were located in a line along the keel of the ship, while ten shorter, more rounded dolia were divided into two lines and laid alongside the central dolia. This type of disposition seems to be related to the structure of the ship and most likely implies that the lips of all the dolia were lying at an even level. The preservation of the Diano Marina's entire cargo provides a rare chance to estimate the capacity of Roman ships. Based on the calculations of the capacity of the central cylindrical dolia and the surrounding rounded dolia on board, the total capacity of the dolia on board the “Diano Marina” would have been approximately 9,500 gallons. The ''Petit Congloue'' shipwreck (
Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...
, Bouches-du-Rhone,
Provence Provence is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which stretches from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the France–Italy border, Italian border to the east; it is bordered by the Mediterrane ...
, France) was discovered in a similar environment as the ''Diano Marina'' shipwreck. Its relatively deep underwater location sufficiently protected the site from disturbances as well, which also allowed for a more detailed study on the position of dolia on board this Roman merchant ship. However, in the ''Petit Congloue'' shipwreck, the dolia are all unfortunately silted up to their shoulders, making it impossible to distinguish their different shapes. But their disposition clearly shows the same pattern of three lines parallel to the keel as in the ''Diano Marina'' shipwreck, which allows us to further specify that the vases in each line were actually sized compared to the ones in the neighboring line. It is important to note here that even though this shipwreck does not allow us to study the shapes of these particular dolia, the sporadic recovery of single dolia from the sea without their known origins basically shows two different and distinct shapes: cylindrical or rounded.


Construction of dolia ships

The ''La Giraglia'' shipwreck, discovered off the coast of Corsica, France, is particularly interesting because it is officially recognized as a cistern boat. This type of vessel was intended to transport dolia in bulk as the dolia appear to have been placed in the hold as the ship was being built. The ''La Giraglia'' was carrying at least eight dolia and its excavation gives insight into the ship’s design and how such vessels contributed to patterns of trade in the western Mediterranean. The cistern boat was an innovation in
ship construction Shipbuilding is the construction of ships and other floating vessels. In modern times, it normally takes place in a specialized facility known as a shipyard. Shipbuilders, also called shipwrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces i ...
, intended to respond to changes in the production and transportation of wine brought about by Roman expansion. The cistern boat began being built during the
Augustan Period Augustan is an adjective which means pertaining to Augustus or Augusta. It can refer to: * Augustan Age (disambiguation) * Augustan literature (ancient Rome) * Augustan prose * Augustan poetry * Augustan Reprint Society * Augustan literature * A ...
, and continued until the 2nd century. The relatively short period of production for this ship-type suggests that there were problems with its design which caused the design to be superseded. Because each discovery illuminates the ways in which maritime commerce adapted to the demands of production and transportation, the ''La Giraglia'' shipwreck is essential in the understanding of mutual exchange within the Mediterranean. As this dolia ship came to a very traumatic ending, there is little left to be excavated and studied of the hull. The hull planking is also poorly preserved, but there were, however, thirteen
strake On a vessel's Hull (watercraft), hull, a strake is a longitudinal course of Plank (wood), planking or Plate (metal), plating which runs from the boat's stem (ship), stempost (at the Bow (ship), bows) to the stern, sternpost or transom (nautica ...
s that may serve for extrapolation to the design of the entire ship. The strakes were fastened together by pegged
mortise and tenon A mortise and tenon (occasionally mortice and tenon) is a Woodworking joints, joint that connects two pieces of wood or other material. Woodworking, Woodworkers around the world have used it for thousands of years to join pieces of wood, mainly ...
joinery Joinery is a part of woodworking that involves joining pieces of wood, engineered lumber, or synthetic substitutes (such as laminate), to produce more complex items. Some woodworking joints employ mechanical fasteners, bindings, or adhesives ...
and assembled in the classic shell-first construction. The spacing between mortises and the width of the mortises is very tight and they also appear to be slightly wider than the tenons. It is believed that the space left within the mortises was intended to compensate for possible misalignment of opposite mortises. It appears that they were arranged in a straight line, rather than alternating from the inboard to the outboard edge and the back inboard in order to prevent the wood from splitting. Twenty-six frames were also identified and recorded from the ''La Giraglia'' dolia shipwreck. The large quantity of nails indicates their significance as a strengthening element in the assemblage of the frames with the planking. The ''La Giraglia'' was a medium-sized ship, but possessed a few rather unusual characteristics because the discovery and study of the twenty-six frames reveal that 58.8% of the preserved hull was composed of
oak An oak is a hardwood tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' of the beech family. They have spirally arranged leaves, often with lobed edges, and a nut called an acorn, borne within a cup. The genus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisp ...
. The use of oak solely for the hull planking has never before been seen in the Mediterranean. However, given the fragmented nature of the remaining wreck, this preponderance of oak in the surviving portions may not reflect the composition of the rest of the original ship. It could have perhaps only been used for the bottom of the hull, which would certainly be an interesting characteristic for such cistern boats. The ship builder might have thought it necessary to use this hardwood because the weight of the cargo was concentrated in the center section of the ship. Overall, there were six species of wood used in the construction of the ''La Giraglia'': oak was used for the
frame A frame is often a structural system that supports other components of a physical construction and/or steel frame that limits the construction's extent. Frame and FRAME may also refer to: Physical objects In building construction *Framing (con ...
s and tenons,
beech Beech (genus ''Fagus'') is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of Mesophyte, mesophytic forests) Eurasia and North America. There are 14 accepted ...
and
elm Elms are deciduous and semi-deciduous trees comprising the genus ''Ulmus'' in the family Ulmaceae. They are distributed over most of the Northern Hemisphere, inhabiting the temperate and tropical- montane regions of North America and Eurasia, ...
also for the frames, ash made up the small pegs used in the hull planking, and
fir Firs are evergreen coniferous trees belonging to the genus ''Abies'' () in the family Pinaceae. There are approximately 48–65 extant species, found on mountains throughout much of North and Central America, Eurasia, and North Africa. The genu ...
and two other types of oak. The shipwright obviously knew how to use the available species appropriately for the construction of the different structures and elements of the ship. “Whatever the answers to the numerous questions raised about the dolia vessels or cistern boats, these ships must be considered not only as a technical innovation of their time, but also as a daring enterprise. The presence of huge containers in the hold presented an obvious and real danger. The rupture of a full dolium would have caused almost two tons of wine to pour rapidly into the hold, which could have resulted in a sudden destabilization and
capsizing Capsizing or keeling over occurs when a boat or ship is rolled on its side or further by wave action, instability or wind force beyond the angle of positive static stability or it is upside down in the water. The act of recovering a vessel fr ...
of the vessel. In spite of the advantages of dolia over
amphoras An amphora (; ; English ) is a type of container with a pointed bottom and characteristic shape and size which fit tightly (and therefore safely) against each other in storage rooms and packages, tied together with rope and delivered by land ...
, the obvious risks may explain why cistern boats disappeared”.


Recent discovery

A new dolia shipwreck has recently been discovered on the seabed just off the coast of the Tuscan island of
Elba Elba (, ; ) is a Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino on the Italian mainland, and the largest island of the Tuscan Archipelago. It is also part of the Arcipelago Toscano National Park, a ...
. The contents of the Roman ship were perfectly preserved, containing nine intact dolia that measured two meters high and five meters round. Experts estimate the ship to be about twenty-two meters in length and date back to the time of the first Roman empire. "This is the first time a complete, inviolate wreck has been found," Michelangelo Zecchini, an archaeologist who works for the Forum
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
commented. "However in itself just the number of containers and their superb condition makes this a truly astounding discovery”. Excavation remains slow and tedious as the shipwreck lies under a meter of lime, but archeologists are hoping that this discovery will provide valuable information and details about the layout and cargo of the ship, as well as cargo ships like it. Doing so will help historians better understand and study the shipping routes of the Mediterranean in antiquity.
ProMare is a 2019 Japanese animated science fiction action film co-produced by Trigger and XFLAG. It was directed by Hiroyuki Imaishi and written by Kazuki Nakashima. It features character and mecha designs by Shigeto Koyama, 3DCG animation by Sanzig ...
, a
non-profit organization A nonprofit organization (NPO), also known as a nonbusiness entity, nonprofit institution, not-for-profit organization, or simply a nonprofit, is a non-governmental (private) legal entity organized and operated for a collective, public, or so ...
that promotes marine discovery and archeology around the globe, is currently heading up the excavation process. It began on September 2, 2008 and represents current attempts to use modern technology in the excavation process. So far, it has been discovered that the ship was carrying ten dolia with a capacity of 400-450 gallons each. The project plans to continue excavating the site in 2009 with the use of a custom-built
remotely operated vehicle A remotely operated underwater vehicle (ROUV) or remotely operated vehicle (ROV) is a free-swimming submersible craft used to perform underwater observation, inspection and physical tasks such as valve operations, hydraulic functions and other g ...
.Gambogi, P., et al. 2008. “Dolia Shipwreck.” Promare: Promoting
Marine Research Marine Research were an indiepop group, based in Oxford/London (UK), formed in 1997 by four of the five members of Heavenly ( Amelia Fletcher, Peter Momtchiloff, Cathy Rogers and Rob Pursey), following the death of Heavenly drummer Mathew ...
and Exploration. (26 April 2009).


Conclusions

Study and analysis of shipboard use of dolia on Roman merchant ships indicates a strong similarity to how dolia were used on land. “It seems that dolia were made in a shape that allowed them to fit perfectly inside a ship in order to leave minimal empty space. The central row was composed of the highest cylindrical dolia, while the two other lines, laid on both sides of the central one, were composed of shorter and more rounded vases. The very tight disposition of the dolia has led to the deduction that these containers were never removed from their places on board ship and that when they carried wine, it had to be poured in and out at the ports-of-call. This conclusion is supported by the fact that all the dolia found on Roman port buildings were imbedded in the ground, and therefore were also irremovable.” In terms of maritime commerce, two assumptions about dolia presented: one, dolia were intended to carry wine and two, they were irremovable within the ships that carried them. This is supported by an ambiguous passage of Latin text from Pliny’s Digest that talks about wine being poured for ships specialized for wine. This would support the conclusion that ships carrying dolia were specifically transporting only wine. “Perhaps one of the most interesting results of the search for information on dolia is the fact that they have been found in considerable quantities in every step of a system of food supply which was related to the overseas trade. In fact, the archaeological evidence confirms the existence of a commercial organization, which would buy a certain food commodity, most likely wine, stored in dolia… In a second step the same commodity may have been further transported to other dolia in other warehouses located closer to possible buyers… All the archaeological and literary evidence support this vision” of the role of dolia in maritime commerce.


Bibliography

*“La Nave ‘A Dolia’ di
Diano Marina Diano Marina (, or simply ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Province of Imperia in the Italian region of Liguria, located about southwest of Genoa and about northeast of Imperia. Geography The municipality of Diano Marina contains the ' ...
,” https://web.archive.org/web/20090403124259/http://www.sullacrestadellonda.it/archeo/dianoindex.htm (28 April 2009). *“Mystery of seabed resolved with 2,000 year old ship’s discovery.” The Roman Hideout. http://www.romanhideout.com/news/2002/irna20020824.asp (Dated 15 August 2002; Access date: 26 April 2009). *Brenni, G. M. R. 1985. “The Dolia and the Sea-Borne Commerce of Imperial Rome.” MA thesis, Texas A&M University. *Gambogi, P., et al. 2008. “Dolia Shipwreck.” Promare: Promoting Marine Research and Exploration. https://web.archive.org/web/20090412095140/http://www.promare.org/project_doliashipwreck.html (26 April 2009). *Marlier, S. and P. Sibella. 2002, “La Giraglia, a dolia wreck of the 1st century BC from Corsica, France: study of its hull remains.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 31.2: 161-71. *Pena, T. J. 2007. ''Roman Pottery In The Archaeological Record''. New York: Cambridge University Press. 20, 46-49.


References

{{Commons category, Dolia History of ceramics Transport in ancient Rome