Directorio Estudiantil Universitario
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The Directorio Estudiantil Universitario (DEU; ) was founded in 1927 by
University of Havana The University of Havana (UH; ) is a public university located in the Vedado district of Havana, the capital of Cuba. Founded on 5 January 1728, the university is the oldest in Cuba, and one of the first to be founded in the Americas. Originall ...
students against the backdrop of a power grab by President
Gerardo Machado Gerardo Machado y Morales (28 September 1869 – 29 March 1939) was a general of the Cuban War of Independence and President of Cuba from 1925 to 1933. Machado was elected president in 1924 as the leader of the Liberal Party, a moderate reform ...
consisting of constitutional reforms designed to prolong his presidential term by two years, and to promote his reelection to an additional term of six years. In the period between pushing for these reforms and their adoption by the corrupt Constitutional Assembly, a strong opposition composed chiefly of university students formed against this "Machadato" (Machado + ''mandato'', mandate). The DEU held various protests against Machado's regime and was at the political forefront of the
One Hundred Days Government The One Hundred Days Government (Spanish: ''Gobierno de los Cien Días'') is the name normally used in Cuba to refer to the Cuban government of Ramon Grau which lasted from 10 September 1933 until 15 January 1934. Background Leading up to thi ...
led by
Ramón Grau Ramón Grau San Martín (; 13 September 1881 – 28 July 1969) was a Cuban physician who served as President of Cuba from 1933 to 1934 and from 1944 to 1948. He was the last president (other than Carlos Manuel Piedra who was interim president ...
. The group dissolved itself on November 6, 1933.


Background

Student activism flourished in the 1920s. In 1922–1923, students formed an organization called the Federación Estudiantil Universitaria (FEU; University Student Federation) which addressed political as well as scholastic issues and took a stance against
American imperialism U.S. imperialism or American imperialism is the expansion of political, economic, cultural, media, and military influence beyond the boundaries of the United States. Depending on the commentator, it may include imperialism through outright mi ...
. After the election of Machado in 1924 some of the gains in student power were reversed, and non-educational student organizations, including the FEU, were banned. The Student Directory formed in this context as an assembly of the leaders of existing athletic and cultural organizations.Aguilar (1972), pp. 73–78.Marcin Kula, “Los estratos medios de la sociedad en el movimiento revolucionario. La revolución de 1933 en Cuba”; ''Revista Mexicana de Sociología'' 43(3), July–September 1981
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Opposition to Machado

Some of the group's first leaders were expelled from school but new ones arose and the group became a vanguard of opposition to Machado. The assassination of exiled former FEU leader
Julio Antonio Mella Julio Antonio Mella McPartland (born Nicanor McPartland; 25 March 1903 – 10 January 1929) was a Cuban political activist, journalist, communist revolutionary, and one of the founders of the original Communist Party of Cuba. Mella studied law a ...
in 1929 further exacerbated the tension with Machado which arose when he announced the extension of his term.Jules R. Benjamin,
The ''Machadato'' and Cuban Nationalism, 1928–1932
, ''Hispanic American Historical Review'' 55(1), February 1975.
The student manifesto called Machado a "human beast, a
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his ...
or
Caligula Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), also called Gaius and Caligula (), was Roman emperor from AD 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the Roman general Germanicus and Augustus' granddaughter Ag ...
." Confrontations between government and opposition became violent in 1930. The DEU planned to disrupt the opening ceremony at the university but were thwarted by a police informant in their ranks who gave away the plan. On September 30, 1930, the scheduled beginning of classes, police were guarding the university, and the students began a march outside. Some arrests and injuries occurred, and the student Rafael Trejo González ( es) died in the hospital from his injuries.Aguilar (1972), pp. 101–107. The protest and the death of Trejo brought the students to the forefront of the national political scene. The government accused them of being Communist subversives, which perhaps some of them were, and announced its intention to act against them unhesitatingly. Civil society groups, politicians, editorialists, and others expressed their support for the students. On October 29 the students published a political program calling for transformation of the
University of Havana The University of Havana (UH; ) is a public university located in the Vedado district of Havana, the capital of Cuba. Founded on 5 January 1728, the university is the oldest in Cuba, and one of the first to be founded in the Americas. Originall ...
and of Cuban society as a whole. Their demands included an investigation into the September 30 events, the resignation of education secretary Octavio Averhoff y Pla and of University Rector Dr. Ricardo Martínez Pietro, demilitarization of educational centers, reinstatement of students expelled in 1927, and autonomy for the university. In November all schools were closed, free speech was officially suppressed, and the army patrolled the streets. The government had acquiesced to the request for autonomy at the university and the resignation of Rector Martínez Pietro. However, after the students further demanded that Machado resign, the government ordered the entire membership of the DEU to be arrested on January 4, 1931. They spent much of their prison time reading and discussing politics; by the time they were released in March, some of the more radical students had formed a splinter group called Ala Izquierda Estudiantil (AIE; Student Left Wing). While the AIE took a left-wing stance, hoping for an alliance with the peasantry and the proletariat, the Student Directory placed less emphasis on
class division Class, Classes, or The Class may refer to: Common uses not otherwise categorized * Class (biology), a taxonomic rank * Class (knowledge representation), a collection of individuals or objects * Class (philosophy), an analytical concept used d ...
, focusing on the abuses of Machado and the injustice of American imperialism under the
Platt Amendment The Platt Amendment was a piece of United States legislation enacted as part of the Army Appropriations Act of 1901 that defined the relationship between the United States and Cuba following the Spanish–American War.José Ingenieros José Ingenieros (born Giuseppe Ingegnieri, April 24, 1877October 31, 1925) was an Argentine physician, pharmacist, positivist philosopher and essayist. He was born in Palermo (Italy), and graduated from the University of Buenos Aires School ...
,
José Enrique Rodó José Enrique Camilo Rodó Piñeyro (15 July 1871 – 1 May 1917) was a Uruguayan essayist. He cultivated an epistolary relationship with important Hispanic thinkers of that time, Leopoldo Alas (Clarín) in Spain, José de la Riva-Agüero in ...
,
José Vasconcelos José Vasconcelos Calderón (28 February 1882 – 30 June 1959), called the "cultural " of the Mexican Revolution, was an important Mexicans, Mexican writer, philosopher, and politician. He is one of the most influential and controversial pers ...
,
José Marti José is a predominantly Spanish and Portuguese form of the given name Joseph. While spelled alike, this name is pronounced very differently in each of the two languages: Spanish ; Portuguese (or ). In French, the name ''José'', pronounced , ...
,
Enrique José Varona Enrique José Varona (April 13, 1848, Puerto Principe, Cuba – November 13, 1933, Havana) was a Cuban author. He was educated in Puerto Principe, and began his literary career in 1864 as a contributor to reviews. In 1874, he moved to Havana, div ...
, Giner de los Ríos,
Miguel de Unamuno Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo (; ; 29 September 1864 – 31 December 1936) was a Spanish essayist, novelist, poet, playwright, philosopher, professor of Greek and Classics, and later rector at the University of Salamanca. His major philosophical ...
, and
José Ortega y Gasset José Ortega y Gasset (; ; 9 May 1883 – 18 October 1955) was a Spanish philosopher and essayist. He worked during the first half of the 20th century while Spain oscillated between monarchy, republicanism and dictatorship. His philosoph ...
. Political events abroad also influenced the group—especially the
New Deal The New Deal was a series of wide-reaching economic, social, and political reforms enacted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States between 1933 and 1938, in response to the Great Depression in the United States, Great Depressi ...
underway in the United States and the
Communist Communism () is a sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology within the socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a socioeconomic order centered on common ownership of the means of production, di ...
and
Fascist Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural soci ...
movements in Europe, including the Republic ideologies coming to the forefront in Spain.


Revolution of 1933

The struggle against Machado continued, with other groups including the
ABC ABC are the first three letters of the Latin script. ABC or abc may also refer to: Arts, entertainment and media Broadcasting * Aliw Broadcasting Corporation, Philippine broadcast company * American Broadcasting Company, a commercial American ...
and the
Cuban Communist Party The Communist Party of Cuba (, PCC) is the One-party state, sole ruling party of Cuba. It was founded on 3 October 1965 as the successor to the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution, which was in turn made up of the 26th of July Movem ...
also participating in the opposition, and sometimes overlapping with the students if not cooperating with each other. A turning point came in May 1933, when newly arrived American ambassador
Sumner Welles Benjamin Sumner Welles (October 14, 1892September 24, 1961) was an American government official and diplomat. He was a major foreign policy adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and served as Under Secretary of State from 1936 to 1943, dur ...
was invited to mediate with selected opposition groups and the Machado regime. The Student Directory refused to participate in the American mediation, while the ABC and some smaller groups accepted the invitation. After the Machado government was replaced with an American-backed coalition, including the ABC and headed by
Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada Carlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada (August 12, 1871 – March 28, 1939) was a Cuban writer, politician, diplomat, and President of Cuba. Early life and career He was the son of Carlos Manuel de Céspedes and Ana Maria de Quesada y Loynaz ...
, on August 12, 1933, Welles expressed his surprise and frustration at the students and workers flooding into the streets as if to take control of the country: "They are taking the attitude that a triumphant revolution has placed the Government in power and that they are consequently entitled to dictate the policies of the Government".Aguilar (1972), pp. 152–153. The students promulgated another statement of their platform on August 24, calling for
agrarian reform Land reform (also known as agrarian reform) involves the changing of laws, regulations, or customs regarding land ownership, land use, and land transfers. The reforms may be initiated by governments, by interested groups, or by revolution. Lan ...
, nationalization of
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and
mining Mining is the Resource extraction, extraction of valuable geological materials and minerals from the surface of the Earth. Mining is required to obtain most materials that cannot be grown through agriculture, agricultural processes, or feasib ...
, a national banking system, reform of the foreign debt, and tax reform, as well as abrogation of the Platt Amendment and autonomy for the University of Havana. They envisioned a government selected by the Student Directory and the abolition of all groups implicated in the Machadato. All citizens, including women, would have the right to vote from age 18. On September 4, 1933, when lower-ranking officers and enlisted men successfully took over Columbia barracks, the student leaders met with them and together agreed on a plan to form a new government. Together the students and soldiers appointed a governing
Pentarchy Pentarchy (, ) was a model of Church organization formulated in the laws of Emperor Justinian I () of the Roman Empire. In this model, the Christian Church is governed by the heads (patriarchs) of the five major episcopal sees of the Roman Em ...
which included two professors.Suchlicki (1968), pp. 364–368. “The government’s inner conflict contributed to its instability. A faction led by student leaders and Interior Minister Antonio Guiteras advocated a continuation of the program of social reform. Strongly nationalistic and sincerely motivated, Guiteras initiated much of the regime’s legislation, and many considered him the real brains behind Grau. Another faction controlled by Batista and the army wanted a conservative program which would bring about United States recognition. Grau seemed to have been caught in the middle of these two tendencies. On November 6 the Directorio, feeling that its mandate had expired, declared itself dissolved, announcing, however, that its members would continue to support President Grau.” After five days the Pentarchy gave way to the leadership of one of its members, Professor Ramón Grau San Martín. The Directory had to intervene to stop the selection of
Gustavo Cuervo Rubio Gustavo Cuervo Rubio (6 December 1890 – 3 April 1978) was a Cuban doctor and politician. Government service Dr. Cuervo was Vice President of Cuba from 1940–1944. He was an unsuccessful candidate for vice president in the election of 19 ...
, an ally of conservative
Mario García Menocal Aurelio Mario Gabriel Francisco García Menocal y Deop (December 17, 1866 – September 7, 1941) was the 3rd President of Cuba, serving from 1913 to 1921. His term as president saw Cuba's participation in the Allies in World War I. Early li ...
. They unilaterally selected Grau and his cabinet, which prominently included Dr. Antonio Guiteras Holmes. The "
One Hundred Days Government The One Hundred Days Government (Spanish: ''Gobierno de los Cien Días'') is the name normally used in Cuba to refer to the Cuban government of Ramon Grau which lasted from 10 September 1933 until 15 January 1934. Background Leading up to thi ...
" which followed made numerous reformist decrees. The United States refused to recognize the legitimacy of this government. Internally, the ideological differences between the students and the military soon became apparent. The discovery of a plot by Batista to seize power led to a failed plan to assassinate him on November 3, forcing the Student Directory to confront the issue of whether they could continue to work with Batista. Unable to reach a decision, the Directory dissolved itself on November 6, 1933. In January, the military, under the leadership of
Fulgencio Batista Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar (born Rubén Zaldívar; January 16, 1901 – August 6, 1973) was a Cuban military officer and politician who played a dominant role in Cuban politics from his initial rise to power as part of the 1933 Revolt of t ...
, deposed Grau and installed a new government which the United States recognized immediately.


Prominent members

Prominent members of the Student Directory included: Carlos Prio Socarras,
Pablo de la Torriente Brau Pablo de la Torriente Brau ( San Juan de Puerto Rico, December 12, 1901 – Majadahonda, near Madrid, Spain, December 19, 1936) was a Cuban writer, journalist and soldier. He was a correspondent in Spain, writing for the Mexican newspaper '' ...
, Salvador Vilaseca Forné,
José Lezama Lima José María Andrés Fernando Lezama Lima (December 19, 1910 – August 9, 1976) was a Cuban writer, poet and essayist. He is considered one of the most influential figures in Cuban and Latin American literature. His novel '' Paradiso'' is one o ...
, Justo Carrillo, Guillermo Barrientos Schweyer, Pepelín Leyva, Juan Marinello, Aureliano Sanchez Arango, Raul Roa Garcia, Antonio Díaz Baldaquín,
Eduardo Chibas Eduardo is the Spanish and Portuguese form of the male name Edward. Another version is Duarte. It may refer to: Association football * Dudu (footballer, born 1992) (Eduardo Pereira Rodrigues), Brazilian footballer * Eduardo (footballer, born 1 ...
, and Rafael Trejo Gonzalez. These students were young and mostly middle-class.Suchlicki (1968), pp. 360–361. "The generation of 1930 was generally very young. Most of the student leaders were in their early twenties. A majority came from middle-class backgrounds. Some like Eduardo Chibás, however, were from wealthy families, while others like Sánchez Arango came from poorer homes. Several were descendants of veterans of the War of Independence. Their ancestors’ participation in public affairs seemed to have been an inspiration for their own active political roles. Many came from areas outside the capital city. Living apart from families and parental discipline, and exposed to the loneliness of a new environment, these students gravitated toward the campus and were perhaps more prone to political involvement than the average city student". They became known as the "Generation of 1930" and gained respect as idealistic reformers.Suchlicki (1968), pp. 356–357. "Trejo's death was the turning point in the struggle against the regime. After September, 1930, the Cubans viewed the courageous student generation that battled Machado's police with admiration and respect. For some 'the generation of 1930,' as these students were later known in Cuban history, seemed irresponsible and undisciplined, while for others it became the best exponent of disinterested idealism. Embattled by the first shock waves of the world depression and oppressed by an increasingly despotic dictator, many Cubans, especially among the less privileged sectors of society, turned in hope and despair toward these youngsters. They deposited their faith in a generation that although inexperienced and immature, seemed incorruptible and willing to bring morality to Cuba’s public life".


See also

*
History of Cuba The island of Cuba was inhabited by various Native American cultures prior to the arrival of the explorer Christopher Columbus in 1492. After his arrival, Spain conquered Cuba and appointed Spanish governors to rule in Havana. The administra ...
*
Timeline of Cuban history This is a timeline of Cuban history, comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in Cuba and its predecessor states. To read about the background to these events, see History of Cuba. See also the list of colonial g ...


References


Sources

* Aguilar, Luis E. (1972). ''Cuba 1933: Prologue to Revolution''. Cornell University Press. . * Carrillo, Justo. (1994). ''Cuba 1933: Students, Yankees, and Soldiers''. New Brunswick & London: Transaction Publishers. . English version of ''Cuba 1933: estudiantes, yanquis y soldados'' (1985), Institute of Interamerican Studies, University of Miami, . * Suchlicki, Jaime (1968). Stirrings of Cuban Nationalism: The Student Generation of 1930. ''Journal of Inter-American Studies'' 10(3), July 1968
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{{Authority control University of Havana 1927 in Cuba 1933 in Cuba