Datura

''Datura'' is a genus of nine species of highly poisonous, vespertine-flowering plants belonging to the nightshade family (Solanaceae). They are commonly known as thornapples or jimsonweeds, but are also known as devil's trumpets or mad apple (not to be confused with angel's trumpets, which are placed in the closely related genus ''Brugmansia''). Other English common names include moonflower, devil's weed, and hell's bells. All species of ''Datura'' are extremely poisonous and psychoactive, especially their seeds and flowers, which can cause respiratory depression, arrhythmias, fever, delirium, hallucinations, anticholinergic toxidrome, psychosis, and death if taken internally.

The name ''Datura'' originates from the Hindi and Sanskrit words for “thorn-apple,” with historical and cultural significance in Ayurveda and Hinduism, while the English term “Jimsonweed” derives from its prevalence in Jamestown, Virginia, where it was called “Jamestown-Weed.” ''Datura'' species are herbaceous annual or short-lived perennial plants up to 2 meters tall with trumpet-shaped flowers and spiny fruit capsules, historically used in traditional medicine, especially in India, where they hold cultural and ritual significance. ''Datura'' species classification is complex due to high variability and overlapping traits among species, with many “new species” later reclassified as local varieties or subspecies; most species are native to Mexico, though some have disputed native ranges outside the Americas, and the genus is closely related to ''Brugmansia'' and the recently established '' Trompettia''.

Due to their effects and symptoms, ''Datura'' species have occasionally been used not only as poisons, but also as hallucinogens by various groups throughout history. Traditionally, their psychoactive administration has often been associated with witchcraft and sorcery or similar practices in many cultures, including the Western world.Hansen, Harold A. ''The Witch's Garden'' pub. Unity Press 1978 Certain common ''Datura'' species have also been used ritualistically as entheogens by some Native American groups.

Non-psychoactive use of plants in the genus is usually done for medicinal purposes, and the alkaloids present in some species have long been considered traditional medicines in both the New and Old Worlds due to the presence of the alkaloids scopolamine and atropine, which are also produced by plants associated with Old World medicine such as ''Hyoscyamus niger'', ''Atropa belladonna'', and '' Mandragora officinarum''.Schultes, Richard Evans; Hofmann, Albert (1979). The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens (2nd ed.). Springfield Illinois: Charles C. Thomas.

Etymology

The generic name ''Datura'' is taken from Hindi धतूरा ' "thorn-apple", ultimately from Sanskrit धत्तूर ' "white thorn-apple" (referring to '' Datura metel'' of Asia). In the Ayurvedic text ''Sushruta Samhita'', different species of ''Datura'' are also referred to as ' and '. ''Dhatura'' is offered to Shiva in Hinduism. Record of this name in English dates back to 1662. Nathaniel Hawthorne refers to one type in ''The Scarlet Letter'' as "apple-Peru". In Mexico, its common name is ''toloache''. The Mexican common name (also spelled ) derives from the Nahuatl , meaning "the plant with the nodding head" (in reference to the nodding seed capsules of ''Datura'' species belonging to section ''Dutra'' of the genus).

The term "Jimsonweed" is said to come from the American colony Jamestown. In Jamestown datura was common, and was referred to as "Jamestown-Weed" by one Virginian, Robert Beverley. This then turned into the term "Jimsonweed".

Description

''Datura'' species are herbaceous, leafy annuals and short-lived perennials, which can reach up to 2 m in height. The leaves are alternate, 10–20 cm long, and 5–18 cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin. The flowers are erect or spreading (not pendulous like those of ''Brugmansia''), trumpet-shaped, 5–20 cm long, and 4–12 cm broad at the mouth; colours vary from white to yellow and pale purple. The fruit is a spiny capsule, 4–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerous seeds. The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields, and even wasteland locations.

''Datura'' belongs to the classic "witches' weeds", along with deadly nightshade, henbane, and mandrake. All parts of the plants are toxic, and the genus has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an essential ingredient of magical ointments, potions, and witches' brews, most notably '' Datura stramonium''.

In India, ''D. metel'' has long been regarded as a poison and aphrodisiac, having been used in Ayurveda as a medicine since ancient times. It features in rituals and prayers to Shiva and also in Ganesh Chaturthi, a festival devoted to the deity Ganesha. The larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, including '' Hypercompe indecisa'', eat some ''Datura'' species. It has been observed that while insects may prefer to feed on ''Datura'' leaves, other animals such as cows will generally avoid consuming them.

Species and cultivars

Classifying ''Datura'' as to its species is difficult, and the descriptions of new species often are accepted prematurely. Later, these "new species" are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location. They usually disappear in a few years. Contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such as ''D. wrightii'' and ''D. inoxia'', are very similar in appearance, and the variation within a species can be extreme. For example, ''Datura'' species can change size of plant, leaf, and flowers, all depending on location. The same species, when growing in a half-shady, damp location can develop into a flowering bush half as tall as an adult human of average height, but when growing in a very dry location, will only grow into a thin plant not much more than ankle high, with tiny flowers and a few miniature leaves. ''Datura'' species are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions. Most species are native to Mexico, which is considered the center of origin of the genus. Several species are considered to have extra-American native ranges: ''D. ferox'' (native to China), ''D. metel'' (native to India and Southeast Asia), and ''D. leichardthii'' (native to Australia), however these may be early introductions from Central America.

A group of South American species formerly placed in the genus ''Datura'' are now placed in the distinct genus ''Brugmansia'' (''Brugmansia'' differs from ''Datura'' in that it is woody (the species being shrubs or small trees) and has indehiscent fruits.) The solanaceous tribe Datureae, to which ''Datura'' and ''Brugmansia'' belong, has recently acquired a new, monotypic genus '' Trompettia'' J. Dupin, featuring the species ''Trompettia cardenasiana'', which had hitherto been misclassified as belonging to the genus '' Iochroma''.

''Datura'' specialists, the Preissels, accept only 9 species of ''Datura'', but Kew's Plants of the World Online currently lists the following 14 (out of which the current edition of The Plant List does not list ''D. arenicola'', ''D. lanosa'', and ''D. pruinosa'' as accepted spp.):

*'' Datura arenicola'' Gentry ex Bye & Luna
*'' Datura ceratocaula'' Ortega
*'' Datura discolor'' Bernh.
*'' Datura ferox'' L.
*'' Datura innoxia'' Mill.
*'' Datura kymatocarpa'' Barclay
*'' Datura lanosa'' A.S.Barclay ex Bye
*'' Datura leichhardtii'' Benth.
*'' Datura metel'' L.
*''Datura pruinosa'' Greenm.
*'' Datura quercifolia'' Kunth
*'' Datura reburra'' Barclay
*'' Datura stramonium'' L.
*''Datura wrightii'' Regel

Of the above, ''D. leichhardtii'' is close enough to ''D. pruinosa'' to merit demotion to a subspecies and likewise ''D. ferox'' and ''D. quercifolia'' are close enough in morphology to merit being subsumed in a single species. Furthermore, the Australian provenance of ''D. leichhardtii'', the Chinese provenance of ''D. ferox'', and the Afro-Asiatic provenance of ''D. metel'' have been cast into serious doubt, with the three species being almost certainly post-Columbian introductions to the regions to which they were originally thought native.

The case of ''D. metel'' is unique in that not only is the plant not a true species at all, but an assemblage of ancient pre-Columbian cultivars created from ''D. innoxia'' in the Greater Antilles, but evidence is mounting that it was introduced to the Indian subcontinent no later than the second century CE – whether by natural or human agency is, as yet, unknown – making it one of the most ancient plant introductions (if not the most ancient) from the New World to the Old World (see Columbian Exchange).'Datura (Solanaceae) is a New World Genus' by D.E. Symon and L. Haegi in (page 197 of) ''Solanaceae III: Taxonomy Chemistry Evolution'', Editors J.G. Hawkes, R.N. Lester, M. Nee, & N. Estrada, published by The Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK for The Linnean Society of London 1991. . Republished as:

''D. arenicola'' is a remarkable new species, described only in 2013, of very restricted range, and so distinctive as to have merited the creation for it of the new section ''Discola'' ot to be confused with the species name ''D. discolor''within the genus. The specific name ''arenicola'' means "loving (i.e. "thriving in") sand".

American Brugmansia and Datura Society, Inc. (ABADS) is designated in the 2004 edition of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants as the official International Cultivar Registration Authority for ''Datura''. This role was delegated to ABADS by the International Society for Horticultural Science in 2002.

Past classified species

* '' D. lanosa''
* '' D. suaveolens''

Cultivation

''Datura'' species are usually sown annually from the seed produced in the spiny capsules, but, with care, the tuberous-rooted perennial species may be overwintered. Most species are suited to being planted outside or in containers. As a rule, they need warm, sunny places and soil that will keep their roots dry. When grown outdoors in good locations, the plants tend to reseed themselves and may become invasive. In containers, they should have porous, aerated potting soil with adequate drainage. The plants are susceptible to fungi in the root area, so anaerobic organic enrichment such as anaerobically composted organic matter or manure, should be avoided.

Toxicity

All ''Datura'' plants contain tropane alkaloids such as scopolamine and atropine, primarily in their seeds and flowers, as well as the roots of certain species such as '' D. wrightii''. Because of the presence of these substances, ''Datura'' has been used for centuries in some cultures as a poison. A given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. These variations make ''Datura'' exceptionally hazardous as a drug. Since datura directly causes the effects of anticholinergic syndrome, the symptoms of its toxicity are often cited by the traditional mnemonic: "Blind as a bat, mad as a hatter, red as a beet, hot as a hare, dry as a bone, the bowel and bladder lose their tone, and the heart runs alone". citing J. Arena, Poisoning: Toxicology-Symptoms-Treatments, 3rd edition. Springfield, Charles C. Thomas, 1974, p 345 ''Datura'', as well as long-term psychoactive/toxic usage of other anticholinergic drugs, also appear to significantly increase the risk of developing dementia.

In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of ''Datura'' was critical to minimize harm. Many tragic incidents result from modern users ingesting or smoking ''Datura''. For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media reported stories of adolescents and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingesting ''Datura''. Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported as well. Although most poisonings occur with more common species of ''Datura'' such as '' D. stramonium'', several reports in the medical literature indicate deaths from ''D. ferox'' intoxication. Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning.

In some parts of Europe and India, ''Datura'' has been a popular poison for suicide and murder. From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories in Agra, India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingesting ''Datura.'' A group called Thugs ''(practicers of thuggee)'' were reportedly devotees of an Indian religious cult made up of robbers and assassins who strangled or poisoned their victims in rituals devoted to the Hindu goddess Kali. They were alleged to employ ''Datura'' in many such poisonings, using it also to induce drowsiness or stupefaction, making strangulation easier. Dash, Mike ''Thug: the true story of India's murderous cult'' , 2005

''Datura'' toxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption of honey produced by several wasp species, including '' Brachygastra lecheguana'', during the ''Datura'' blooming season. These semi-domesticated honey wasps apparently collect ''Datura'' nectar for honey production, which can lead to poisoning.

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for a family of six who inadvertently ingested ''Datura'' used as an ingredient in stew.

In some places around the world, such as India due to the Drug & Cosmetic Act 1940 & Rule 1995, buying, selling, or cultivating ''Datura'' plants is prohibited. Solanaceous tribes with a similar chemistry (i.e. a similar tropane alkaloid content), include the Hyoscyameae, containing such well-known toxic species as ''Hyoscyamus niger'' and ''Atropa belladonna'', the Solandreae containing the genus '' Solandra'' ("chalice vines") and the Mandragoreae, named for the famous '' Mandragora officinarum'', most of which are considered traditional witches' herbs and poisons.

Effects of ingestion

''Datura'' is considered a deliriant. Due to the potent combination of anticholinergic substances it contains, ''Datura'' intoxication typically produces the effects of anticholinergic delirium (usually involving a complete or relative inability to differentiate reality from fantasy); bizarre thoughts, hyperthermia; tachycardia; bizarre, and possibly violent behavior; dry skin; dry mouth; illusions; and severe mydriasis (dilated pupils) with resultant painful photophobia that can last several days. Muscle stiffness, urinary retention, temporary paralysis, disrobing, emotional bluntness, dysphoria, and confusion are often reported, and pronounced amnesia is another commonly reported effect. The psychoactive alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also both known for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations. The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last two weeks or longer.

Treatment

Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, people with acute ''Datura'' poisoning or intoxication are typically hospitalized. Gastric lavage and the administration of activated charcoal can be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material, and the drug physostigmine is used to reverse the effect of the poisons. Benzodiazepines can be given to calm the patient's agitation, and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided. Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24 to 36 hours after ingestion of the ''Datura''.

Psychoactive use

In ''Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs'', Freye asserts, "Few substances have received as many severely negative recreational experience reports as has ''Datura''." The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use of ''Datura'' find their experiences extremely unpleasant ─ both mentally and often physically. However, anthropologists have found that indigenous groups, with a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of ''Datura'', have been known to use ''Datura'' spiritually (including the Navajo and especially the Havasupai). Adequate knowledge of ''Datura'' properties is necessary to facilitate a safe experience. The ancient inhabitants of what became central and southern California used to ingest ''Datura'' to "commune with deities through visions". The Southern Paiute believe ''Datura'' can help locate missing objects. In ancient Mexico, ''Datura'' also played an important role in the religion of the Aztecs and the practices of their medicine men and necromancers. It was reportedly used by the Aztecs for ritual sacrifice and malevolent purposes as well. In modern-day Mexico, some datura species are still used for sorcery and other occult practices, mostly in the southern region of Veracruz, specifically in the city of Catemaco.

Bernardino de Sahagún, in around 1569, called attention to ''Datura'' in these words:
"It is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred. Those who eat it have visions of fearful things. Magicians or those who wish to harm someone administer it in food or drink. This herb is medicinal and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected."

Christian Rätsch has said, "A mild dosage produces medicinal and healing effects, a moderate dosage produces aphrodisiac effects, and high dosages are used for shamanic purposes". Wade Davis, an ethnobotanist, also lists it as an essential ingredient of Haitian zombie potion. In Western culture, the same species ('' Datura stramonium'') has been said to have been commonly used by witches as an ingredient for their flying ointments and was regularly included in detailed recipes of magical ointments dating back as far as the early modern period, predominately in New England and Western Europe. During the anti-witchcraft hysteria of colonial times it was considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow ''D. stramonium'' in one's garden due to its supposed reputation for aiding in incantations.

Gallery

File:Datura stramonium RF.jpg, ''D. stramonium'' (lateral view) near Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany
File:Datura wrightii, Twentynine Palms California - 2014-07.jpg , ''D. wrightii'' in bloom (lateral view) near Twentynine Palms, California, U.S.
File:Datura Flower on the plant (Lateral View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 01.jpg, ''Datura'' flower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India
File:Datura Flower on the plant (Top View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 02.jpg, ''Datura'' flower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India

See also

* Scopolamine
* Anticholinergics
*Antimuscarinic
* List of poisonous plants
*Psychoactive plant

References

External links

*

Further reading

*
* on eMedicine
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{{Authority control

Deliriants
Entheogens
Herbal and fungal hallucinogens
Oneirogens
Solanaceae genera
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus