Dano-Norwegian (
Danish and ) was a
koiné/
mixed language
A mixed language, also referred to as a hybrid language or fusion language, is a type of contact language that arises among a bilingual group combining aspects of two or more languages but not clearly deriving primarily from any single language. ...
that evolved among the urban elite in Norwegian cities during the later years of the union between the
Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway (1536/1537–1814). It is from this koiné that the unofficial written standard
Riksmål
(, also , ) is an unofficial written Norwegian language form or spelling standard, meaning the ''National Language'', closely related and now almost identical to the dominant form of Bokmål, known as .
Both Bokmål and Riksmål evolved from t ...
and the official written standard
Bokmål
Bokmål () (, ; ) is one of the official written standards for the Norwegian language, alongside Nynorsk. Bokmål is by far the most used written form of Norwegian today, as it is adopted by 85% to 90% of the population in Norway. There is no cou ...
developed. Bokmål is now the most widely used written standard of contemporary Norwegian.
History
As a spoken language
During the period when Norway was in a union with Denmark, Norwegian writing died out and
Danish became the language of the literate class in
Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
. At first, Danish was used primarily in writing; later it came to be spoken on formal or official occasions; and by the time Norway's ties with Denmark were severed in 1814, a Dano-Norwegian vernacular often called the "cultivated everyday speech" had become the mother tongue of parts of the urban elite. This new Dano-Norwegian koiné could be described as Danish with Norwegian pronunciation, some Norwegian vocabulary, and some minor grammatical differences from Danish.
As a written language
In the late middle ages and early modern age, the Scandinavian languages went through great changes, as they were influenced in particular by Low German. Written
Danish language
Danish (, ; , ) is a North Germanic languages, North Germanic language from the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family spoken by about six million people, principally in and around Denmark. Communities of Danish speakers are a ...
mostly found its modern form in the 17th century, based on the vernacular of the educated classes of
Copenhagen
Copenhagen ( ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a population of 1.4 million in the Urban area of Copenhagen, urban area. The city is situated on the islands of Zealand and Amager, separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the ...
. At the time, Copenhagen was the capital of
Denmark–Norway
Denmark–Norway (Danish language, Danish and Norwegian language, Norwegian: ) is a term for the 16th-to-19th-century multi-national and multi-lingual real unionFeldbæk 1998:11 consisting of the Kingdom of Denmark, the Kingdom of Norway (includ ...
, and Danish was used as an official written language in Norway at the time of the dissolution of the Dano-Norwegian union in 1814. In Norway it was generally referred to as Norwegian, particularly after the dissolution of the Dano-Norwegian union.
During the 19th century, spoken Dano-Norwegian language gradually came to incorporate more of Norwegian vocabulary and grammar. At the start of the 20th century, written Dano-Norwegian was mostly identical with written Danish, with only minor differences, such as some additional Norwegian vocabulary in Dano-Norwegian. In 1907 and 1917, spelling and grammar reforms brought the written language closer to the spoken koiné (Dano-Norwegian). Based on the Danish model, the Dano-Norwegian language in Norway was referred to as Rigsmål, later spelled
Riksmål
(, also , ) is an unofficial written Norwegian language form or spelling standard, meaning the ''National Language'', closely related and now almost identical to the dominant form of Bokmål, known as .
Both Bokmål and Riksmål evolved from t ...
, from the late 19th century, and this name was officially adopted in the early 20th century. In 1929, the name Riksmål was officially changed to
Bokmål
Bokmål () (, ; ) is one of the official written standards for the Norwegian language, alongside Nynorsk. Bokmål is by far the most used written form of Norwegian today, as it is adopted by 85% to 90% of the population in Norway. There is no cou ...
after a proposition to use the name ''dansk-norsk'' lost with a single vote in the
Lagting (a chamber in the
Norwegian parliament).
In the mid-19th century, a new written language,
Landsmål
Nynorsk (; ) is one of the two official written standards of the Norwegian language, the other being Bokmål. From 12 May 1885, it became the state-sanctioned version of Ivar Aasen's standard Norwegian language (''Landsmål''), parallel to the Da ...
, based on selected rural Norwegian dialects, was launched as an alternative to Dano-Norwegian, but it did not replace the existing written language. Landsmål, renamed
Nynorsk
Nynorsk (; ) is one of the two official written standards of the Norwegian language, the other being Bokmål. From 12 May 1885, it became the state-sanctioned version of Ivar Aasen's standard Norwegian language (''Landsmål''), parallel to the Da ...
, is currently used by around 12% of the population, mostly in western Norway; it had reached its height in the 1940s. The
Norwegian language conflict is an ongoing controversy within Norwegian culture and politics related to these two official versions of the Norwegian language.
The official policy during most of the 20th century was to create a combined version of the two variants (Nynorsk and Bokmål), called Samnorsk. Gradual changes in the spelling and grammatical rules in both forms were introduced several times in order to make these variants more similar. Eventually, the idea of Samnorsk was abandoned. However, the spelling and grammar reforms had a lasting effect on the languages.
Modern developments
Bokmål
Bokmål () (, ; ) is one of the official written standards for the Norwegian language, alongside Nynorsk. Bokmål is by far the most used written form of Norwegian today, as it is adopted by 85% to 90% of the population in Norway. There is no cou ...
, in contemporary times, is primarily recognized as a written language, and in part refers its pronunciation in media, theatre, and so forth. Distinct spoken varieties of Norwegian closely resemble Bokmål. Notably, a conservative form akin to historical Dano-Norwegian is observed in higher
sociolects
In sociolinguistics, a sociolect is a form of language ( non-standard dialect, restricted register) or a set of lexical items used by a socioeconomic class, profession, age group, or other social group.
Sociolects involve both passive acquisit ...
in Oslo and other Eastern Norwegian cities.
In Eastern Norway, a less socially distinct variant, known as standard østnorsk (
Standard East Norwegian), is gaining prominence as the spoken standard. This variant is colloquially termed the
Oslo
Oslo ( or ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality. The municipality of Oslo had a population of in 2022, while the city's greater urban area had a population of 1,064,235 in 2022 ...
dialect, a misnomer since the original Oslo dialect predates and differs from the Dano-Norwegian koiné.
While influenced by standard østnorsk, the traditional Oslo dialect persists alongside the newer standard. Over time, the spoken Dano-Norwegian standard, its successors, and
Modern Norwegian
Modern Norwegian () is the Norwegian language that emerged after the Middle Norwegian transition period (1350–1536) until and including today. The transition to Modern Norwegian is usually dated to 1525, or 1536, the year of the Protestant Ref ...
dialects have mutually influenced each other, blurring the lines between them.
The application of the term Dano-Norwegian to contemporary Bokmål and its spoken forms is rare. The language's national identity has sparked extensive debate. Users and advocates often reject the implied Danish association, preferring neutral terms like Riksmål (state language) and Bokmål (literary language). This debate intensified with the emergence of
Nynorsk
Nynorsk (; ) is one of the two official written standards of the Norwegian language, the other being Bokmål. From 12 May 1885, it became the state-sanctioned version of Ivar Aasen's standard Norwegian language (''Landsmål''), parallel to the Da ...
in the 19th century, a Norwegian written language rooted in Modern Norwegian dialects and opposing Danish and Dano-Norwegian influences.
Nynorsk supporters have historically argued that Nynorsk is the
sole authentic Norwegian language, viewing Riksmål/Bokmål as remnants of the dual monarchy. Consequently, labeling Bokmål as Dano-Norwegian can be seen as stigmatizing. While many Bokmål users find this association offensive, it is prevalent in Nynorsk-centric discussions. Nevertheless, some sources, like the Encyclopaedia Britannica, acknowledge Bokmål as an extension of Dano-Norwegian: "In its current form Dano-Norwegian is the predominant language of Norway’s population of more than 4.6 million."
See also
*
Gøtudanskt
*
Svorsk
Notes
{{Germanic languages
Norwegian language
Danish language
Denmark–Norway