Pearl millet (''Cenchrus americanus'', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum glaucum''; also known as 'Bajra' in

Hindi Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of North India, northern, Central India, centr ...

, 'Sajje' in

Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...

, 'Kambu' in

Tamil Tamil may refer to: * Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia ** Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils **Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia * Tamil language, nati ...

, 'Bajeer' in Kumaoni and 'Maiwa' in

Hausa Hausa may refer to: * Hausa people, an ethnic group of West Africa * Hausa language, spoken in West Africa * Hausa Kingdoms, a historical collection of Hausa city-states * Hausa (horse) or Dongola horse, an African breed of riding horse See also ...

, 'Mexoeira' in

Mozambique Mozambique (), officially the Republic of Mozambique ( pt, Moçambique or , ; ny, Mozambiki; sw, Msumbiji; ts, Muzambhiki), is a country located in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Mala ...

) is the most widely grown type of

millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae, but some millets ...

. It has been grown in

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

and the

Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India ...

since prehistoric times. The center of diversity, and suggested area of

domestication Domestication is a sustained multi-generational relationship in which humans assume a significant degree of control over the reproduction and care of another group of organisms to secure a more predictable supply of resources from that group. A ...

, for the crop is in the

Sahel The Sahel (; ar, ساحل ' , "coast, shore") is a region in North Africa. It is defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic realm of transition between the Sahara to the north and the Sudanian savanna to the south. Having a hot semi-arid c ...

zone of

West Africa West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mau ...

. Recent archaeobotanical research has confirmed the presence of domesticated pearl millet on the Sahel zone of northern

Mali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...

between 2500 and 2000 BC.

Description

Pearl millet has

ovoid An oval () is a closed curve in a plane which resembles the outline of an egg. The term is not very specific, but in some areas (projective geometry, technical drawing, etc.) it is given a more precise definition, which may include either one o ...

grains of 3 – 4 mm length, the largest kernels of all varieties of millet (not including

sorghum ''Sorghum'' () is a genus of about 25 species of flowering plants in the grass family ( Poaceae). Some of these species are grown as cereals for human consumption and some in pastures for animals. One species is grown for grain, while many ot ...

). These can be nearly white, pale yellow, brown, grey, slate blue or purple. The 1000-seed weight can be anything from 2.5 to 14 g with a mean of 8 g. The height of the plant ranges from 0.5 – 4 m.

Cultivation

Pearl millet is well adapted to growing areas characterized by

drought A drought is defined as drier than normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, an ...

, low soil fertility, low moisture, and high temperature. It performs well in soils with high salinity or low pH. Because of its tolerance to difficult growing conditions, it can be grown in areas where other

cereal A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more foo ...

crops, such as

maize Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn ( North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. ...

wheat Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeolog ...

, would not survive. Pearl millet is a summer annual crop well-suited for double cropping and rotations.The grain and forage are valuable as food and feed resources in Africa, Russia, India and China. Today pearl millet is grown on over 260,000 km² of land worldwide. It accounts for about 50% of the total world production of millets. Pearl millet is the most widely grown millet and is a very important crop in India and parts of Africa. World production of millets has been stable during the 1980s. According to FAO, 39.4 million hectares of millet were planted in 1987 with an average production of only 704kg/ha.

Structure and physical properties

pearl millet varieties from the world collection probably have more variation in physical characteristics than any other millet. Kernel shape has different classifications: obovate, hexagonal, lanceolate, globular and elliptical. In Africa, pearl millet is classified as either globular or lanceolate and hexagonal. Most of the millets are very similar to each other in basic structures, although there are some very specific differences.

Composition

The mean value in proximate composition of variety Changara of pearl millet are presented in the table below. The proximate composition can be affected by both environment and genetics. Pearl millet usually has higher protein content and fat contents than sorghum or other millets because the kernel is a naked caryopsis. All means values are expressed on dry matter basis N*6.5

Culinary use

Pearl millet is commonly used to make ''

bhakri Bhakri () is a round flatbread (roti) often used in the cuisine of the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Karnataka in India. The bhakri prepared using jowar or bajra is coarser than a regular wheat chapati. Bhakri can be either soft ...

'' flatbread. It is also boiled to make a

porridge called ''kamban choru'' or "kamban koozh". In

Rajasthani cuisine Rajasthani cuisine ( hi, राजस्थानी व्यञ्जन) is the cuisine of the rugged Rajasthan region in North West India. It was influenced by both the warlike lifestyles of its inhabitants and the availability of ingred ...

is a traditional dish made with pearl millet flour and

yogurt Yogurt (; , from tr, yoğurt, also spelled yoghurt, yogourt or yoghourt) is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known as ''yogurt cultures''. Fermentation of sugars in the milk by these bact ...

. It is usually made in summers to be served along with meals.

Around the world

India

India India, officially the Republic of India ( Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the ...

is the largest producer of pearl millet. India began growing pearl millet between 1500 and 1100 BCE. It is currently unknown how it made its way to India. Rajasthan is the highest-producing state in India. The first hybrid of pearl millet developed in India in 1965 is called the HB1. Sajje is the local name of the Pearl Millet in Karnataka and is mostly grown in the semi-arid districts of North Karnataka. Sajje is milled and used for making flatbread called 'Sajje Rotti' and is eaten with Yennegai (stuffed brinjal) and yogurt. Kambu is the Tamil name of pearl millet and is an important food across the

Indian state India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories, with a total of 36 entities. The states and union territories are further subdivided into districts and smaller administrative divisions. History Pre-indep ...

of Tamil Nadu. It is the second important food for Tamil people consumed predominantly in the hot humid summer months from February through May every year. It is made into a

gruel Gruel is a food consisting of some type of cereal—such as ground oats, wheat, rye, or rice—heated or boiled in water or milk. It is a thinner version of porridge that may be more often drunk rather than eaten. Historically, gruel has been a st ...

and consumed along with buttermilk or consumed as dosa or idly. Pearl Millet is called Bajra in Northern Indian states. There was a time when pearl millets along with

finger millet ''Eleusine coracana'', or finger millet, also known as ragi in India, kodo in Nepal, is an annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and semiarid areas in Africa and Asia. It is a tetraploid and self-pollinating species ...

s and

were the staple food crops in these states but it reduced to mere cattle fodder crop after the

Green Revolution The Green Revolution, also known as the Third Agricultural Revolution, was a period of technology transfer initiatives that saw greatly increased crop yields and agricultural production. These changes in agriculture began in developed countrie ...

in the 1960s.

Africa

The second largest producer of pearl millet and the first to start cultivation, Africa has been successful in bringing back this lost crop.

Sahel

Pearl millet is an important food across the

region of Africa. It is a main staple (along with

) in a large region of northern

Nigeria Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of G ...

Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesMali Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Ma ...

and

Burkina Faso Burkina Faso (, ; , ff, 𞤄𞤵𞤪𞤳𞤭𞤲𞤢 𞤊𞤢𞤧𞤮, italic=no) is a landlocked country in West Africa with an area of , bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the ...

. In Nigeria it is usually grown as an

intercrop Intercropping is a multiple cropping practice that involves growing two or more crops in proximity. In other words, intercropping is the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field. The most common goal of intercropping is ...

with sorghum and

cowpea The cowpea (''Vigna unguiculata'') is an annual herbaceous legume from the genus '' Vigna''. Its tolerance for sandy soil and low rainfall have made it an important crop in the semiarid regions across Africa and Asia. It requires very few i ...

, the different growth habits, growth period and drought vulnerability of the three crops maximising total productivity and minimising the risk of total crop failure. It is often ground into a flour, rolled into large balls, parboiled, liquefied into a watery paste using fermented milk, and then consumed as a beverage. This beverage, called "fura" in Hausa, is a popular drink in northern Nigeria and southern Niger. Pearl millet is a food widely used in

Borno state Borno State is a state in the North-East geopolitical zone of Nigeria, bordered by Yobe to the west, Gombe to the southwest, and Adamawa to the south while its eastern border forms part of the national border with Cameroon, its northern borde ...

and its surrounding states, it is the most widely grown and harvested crop. There are many products that are obtained from the processing of the crop.

Namibia

Namibia Namibia (, ), officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa. Its western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and e ...

, pearl millet is locally known as "mahangu" and is grown mainly in the north of that country, where it is the

staple food A staple food, food staple, or simply a staple, is a food that is eaten often and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard Diet (nutrition), diet for a given person or group of people, supplying a large fraction of ...

. In the dry, unpredictable climate of this area it grows better than alternatives such as

. Mahangu is usually made into a

porridge Porridge is a food made by heating or boiling ground, crushed or chopped starchy plants, typically grain, in milk or water. It is often cooked or served with added flavourings such as sugar, honey, (dried) fruit or syrup to make a sweet cereal, ...

called "oshifima" (or "oshithima"), or

ferment Fermentation is a metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through the action of enzymes. In biochemistry, it is narrowly defined as the extraction of energy from carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen. In food p ...

ed to make a drink called "ontaku" or "oshikundu". Traditionally the mahangu is pounded with heavy pieces of wood in a 'pounding area'. The floor of the pounding area is covered with a concrete-like coating made from the material of

termite Termites are small insects that live in colonies and have distinct castes ( eusocial) and feed on wood or other dead plant matter. Termites comprise the infraorder Isoptera, or alternatively the epifamily Termitoidae, within the order Blat ...

mounds. As a result, some sand and grit gets into the pounded mahangu, so products like oshifima are usually swallowed without chewing. After pounding,

winnowing Winnowing is a process by which chaff is separated from grain. It can also be used to remove pests from stored grain. Winnowing usually follows threshing in grain preparation. In its simplest form, it involves throwing the mixture into th ...

may be used to remove the chaff. Some industrial grain processing facilities now exist, such as those operated by

Namib Mills Namib Mills Ltd, established in 1982, is the largest grain processing company in Namibia. It produces flour, pasta, animal feeds and other products from raw materials including maize, much of which is imported, and local varieties of pearl millet (m ...

. Efforts are also being made to develop smaller scale processing using

food extrusion Extrusion in food processing consists of forcing soft mixed ingredients through an opening in a perforated plate or die designed to produce the required shape. The extruded food is then cut to a specific size by blades. The machine which forces ...

and other methods. In a food extruder, the mahangu is milled into a paste before being forced through metal

die Die, as a verb, refers to death, the cessation of life. Die may also refer to: Games * Die, singular of dice, small throwable objects used for producing random numbers Manufacturing * Die (integrated circuit), a rectangular piece of a semicondu ...

. Products made this way include breakfast cereals, including

puffed grain Puffed grains are grains that have been expanded ("puffed") through processing. They have been made for centuries with the simplest methods like popping popcorn. Modern puffed grains are often created using high temperature, pressure, or extrusi ...

s and

, pasta shapes, and "rice".

Research and development

Recently more productive varieties of pearl millet have been introduced, enabling farmers to increase production considerably. To combat the problem of micronutrient malnutrition in Africa and Asia, a study of serving iron- biofortified pearl millets which is bred conventionally without

genetic modification Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including t ...

to a control group is proved to have higher level of iron absorbance by the group. Around 1000 pearl millet genotypes, including 31 wild genotypes are sequenced to grasp the genetic diversity of this staple crop to aid breeding by enriching the genetic material. A reference genotype of pearl millet (Tift 23D2B1-P1-P5) has been fully sequenced, which holds around 38,579 genes. Some of these genes are for wax biosynthesis, which is known to be involved in tolerance to abiotic stresses in pearl millet.

ICRISAT The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is an international organization which conducts agricultural research for rural development, headquartered in Patancheru (Hyderabad, Telangana, India) with several re ...

is currently evaluatin
crop wild relatives
and will introgress abiotic tolerant traits into cultivated genotypes and make them available for pearl millet improvement.

Pests

Insect pests include: ;Seedling pests *shoot fly ''

Atherigona approximata ''Atherigona approximata'', the pearl millet shoot fly, is a species of fly in the family Muscidae. The larvae feed on the central growing shoots of crops such as pearl millet and sorghum. It is found in South Asia.Natarajan, V. S., V. D. G. Raj ...

'' (major seedling pest) *''

Atherigona soccata ''Atherigona soccata'', the sorghum shoot fly, is a species of fly in the family Muscidae whose larvae feed on the central growing shoots of millet crops like sorghum and finger millet, as well as maize, where they can cause serious loss of yiel ...

'', ''

Atherigona oryzae ''Atherigona oryzae'', the rice shoot fly, is a species of fly in the family Muscidae. It is found in Asia and Australia. It is known to affect rice, kodo millet ''Paspalum scrobiculatum'', commonly called Kodo millet or Koda millet,A. E. Gra ...

'', ''

Atherigona punctata ''Atherigona punctata'', the Coimbatore wheat stem fly, is a species of fly in the family Muscidae. In South India, it is a pest of the wheat plant, ''Triticum aestivum Common wheat (''Triticum aestivum''), also known as bread wheat, is a ...

'', ''

Atherigona ponti ''Atherigona ponti'' is a species of fly in the family Muscidae. It is a pest of millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Mo ...

'', and ''

Atherigona yorki ''Atherigona yorki'' is a species of fly in the family Muscidae. It is a pest of millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Mos ...

'' *anthomyiid flies ''

Delia arambourgi ''Delia arambourgi'' is a species of fly in the family Anthomyiidae. It is a pest of teff and pearl millet in Ethiopia Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Feder ...

'' and ''

Delia flavibasis ''Delia flavibasis'' is a species of fly in the family Anthomyiidae. It is a pest of the pearl millet in Ethiopia Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Dem ...

'' (Ethiopia) ;Stem borers *lepidopteran borers: ''

Chilo partellus ''Chilo partellus'', the spotted stalk borer or spotted stem borer, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Charles Swinhoe in 1885. It is found in India, Pakistan, Iran, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, South Africa, Sudan, ...

'', ''

Chilo infuscatellus ''Chilo infuscatellus'', the yellow top borer or sugarcane shoot borer, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by the Dutch entomologist Samuel Constantinus Snellen van Vollenhoven in 1890. It is found in India, Myanmar, Tajikistan, ...

'', ''

Sesamia calamistis ''Sesamia calamistis'', the African pink stem borer, is a moth of the family Noctuidae.Tams, W.H.T. & J. Bowden, 1953: A Revision of the African Species of ''Sesamia'' Guenée and related Genera (Agrotidae-Lepidoptera). ''Bulletin of Entomologica ...

'', ''

Sesamia cretica ''Sesamia cretica'', the corn stem borer, greater sugarcane borer, sorghum stem borer, stem corn borer, durra stem borer, large corn borer, pink sugarcane borer, sugarcane pink borer, sorghum borer, pink corn borer, maize borer or purple stem bo ...

'', ''

Sesamia inferens ''Sesamia inferens'', the Asiatic pink stem borer, gramineous stem borer, pink borer, pink rice borer, pink rice stem borer, pink stem borer, purple borer, purple stem borer or purplish stem borer, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species ...

'', ''

Diatraea grandiosella The southwestern corn borer, ''Diatraea grandiosella'', is a moth belonging to the sub-order Heterocera. Like most moths, The southwestern corn borer undergoes complete metamorphosis developing as an egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa and adult. I ...

'', ''

Coniesta ignefusalis ''Coniesta ignefusalis'', the pearl millet stem-borer, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by George Hampson in 1919. Distribution ''Coniesta ignefusalis'' is found throughout the West African Sahel, including in Senegal, Mali, B ...

'', ''

Busseola fusca ''Busseola fusca'' is a species of moth that is also known as the maize stalk borer. It is known from Ethiopia. The wingspan is 35–40 mm. Adults are pale brown. The caterpillars are light or dark violet to pinkish white and about 1 to 2 � ...

'', '' Eldana saccharina'', ''

Ostrinia furnacalis ''Ostrinia furnacalis'' is a species of moth in the family Crambidae, the grass moths. It was described by Achille Guenée in 1854 and is known by the common name Asian corn borer since this species is found in Asia and feeds mainly on corn crop ...

'', and ''

Ostrinia nubilalis The European corn borer (''Ostrinia nubilalis''), also known as the European corn worm or European high-flyer, is a moth of the family Crambidae which includes other grass moths. It is a pest of grain, particularly maize (''Zea mays''). The ins ...

'' ;Leaf feeders *lepidopteran caterpillars: ''

Amsacta moorei ''Paramsacta moorei'' is a moth of the family Erebidae. It was described by Arthur Gardiner Butler in 1875. It is found in India and Pakistan.Mythimna loreyi ''Leucania loreyi'', the cosmopolitan, false army worm or nightfeeding rice armyworm, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in most of African countries, the Indo-Australian subtropics and tropics of India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, the eastern ...

'', ''

Mythimna separata ''Mythimna separata'', the northern armyworm, oriental armyworm or rice ear-cutting caterpillar, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is found in China, Japan, South-east Asia, India, eastern Australia, New Zealand, and some Pacific islands. ...

'', ''

Cnaphalocrocis medinalis ''Cnaphalocrocis medinalis'', the rice leafroller, is a species of moth of the family Crambidae. It is found in south-east Asia, including Hong Kong, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and most of Australia. The wingspan is about . The larvae are cons ...

'', ''

Cnaphalocrocis patnalis ''Cnaphalocrocis patnalis'' is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by John David Bradley in 1981. It is found in south-east Asia, where it has been recorded from Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. The larvae f ...

'', ''

Spodoptera exigua The beet armyworm or small mottled willow moth (''Spodoptera exigua'') is one of the best-known agricultural pest insects. It is also known as the asparagus fern caterpillar. It is native to Asia, but has been introduced worldwide and is now fo ...

'', ''

Spodoptera frugiperda The fall armyworm (''Spodoptera frugiperda'') is a species in the order Lepidoptera and one of the species of the fall armyworm moths distinguished by their larval life stage. The term "armyworm" can refer to several species, often describing t ...

'', ''

Spodoptera mauritia ''Spodoptera mauritia'', the lawn armyworm or paddy swarming caterpillar, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Jean Baptiste Boisduval in 1833. Able to eat many types of food, it is a major pest throughout the wo ...

'', ''

Autoba silicula ''Autoba silicula'' is a species of moth in the family Noctuidae. As a pest of millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most ...

'' *grasshoppers: ''

Diabolocatantops axillaris ''Diabolocatantops axillaris'' is a grasshopper species in the subfamily Catantopinae and tribe Catantopini. It is found in Africa. It is a pest of the pearl millet in the West African Sahel,Reynolds, D., & Riley, J. (1988). A migration of gras ...

'', ''

Hieroglyphus banian ''Hieroglyphus banian'' is a species of grasshopper in the family Acrididae. It is a pest of millets such as sorghum, pearl millet Pearl millet (''Cenchrus americanus'', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum glaucum''; also known as 'Baj ...

'', ''

Hieroglyphus daganensis The African rice grasshopper, ''Hieroglyphus daganensis'' is a medium-sized grasshopper species found in the Sahel region. Although not called a locust in English, this species shows gregarious behaviour and some morphological change (phase Polym ...

'', ''

Oedaleus senegalensis The Senegalese grasshopper (''Oedaleus senegalensis'') is a medium-sized grasshopper species found in the Sahel region of Africa, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands, and West Asia. Although not called a locust in English, this species shows ...

'', and ''

Schistocerca gregaria The desert locust (''Schistocerca gregaria'') is a species of locust, a periodically swarming, short-horned grasshopper in the family Acrididae. They are found primarily in the deserts and dry areas of northern and eastern Africa, Arabia, and so ...

'' ;Sucking pests *bugs: ''

Blissus leucopterus ''Blissus leucopterus'', also known as the true chinch bug, is a small North American insect in the order Hemiptera and family Blissidae. It is the most commonly encountered species of the genus '' Blissus'', which are all known as chinch bugs ...

'', ''

Nysius niger ''Nysius niger'' is a species of true bug in the family Lygaeidae. It is a pest of millets in the Americas. References niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesCicadulina mbila ''Cicadulina mbila'', the maize leafhopper, is a leafhopper A leafhopper is the common name for any species from the family Cicadellidae. These minute insects, colloquially known as hoppers, are plant feeders that suck plant sap from grass, s ...

'', ''

Cicadulina storeyi ''Cicadulina storeyi'' is a species of true bug in the family Cicadellidae. It is a pest of millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and huma ...

'', and ''

Pyrilla perpusilla ''Pyrilla perpusilla'', commonly known as the sugarcane planthopper, is a planthopper in the family Lophopidae. It is native to Asia where it feeds on grasses and other plants and is a major pest of sugarcane and sorghum. Description The adult ' ...

'' *aphids: ''

Rhopalosiphum maidis ''Rhopalosiphum maidis'', common names corn leaf aphid and corn aphid, is an insect, and a pest of maize and other crops. It has a nearly worldwide distribution and is typically found in agricultural fields, grasslands, and forest-grassland zon ...

'', ''

Sitobion miscanthi The Indian grain aphid (''Sitobion miscanthi''), also known as ''Sitobion (Sitobion) miscanthi'', is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from cereal plants, making it a pest of wheat p ...

'', and ''

Hyalopterus pruni ''Hyalopterus pruni'', common name Mealy Plum Aphid, is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants. Distribution This species has a cosmopolitan distribution. Description Adults ...

'' ;Other pests *beetle ''

Chiloloba acuta ''Chiloloba acuta'' is a species of Scarabaeidae, flower chafer beetle and is the sole member of its genus. It is widely distributed in the Indian subcontinent. These beetles are often shiny with short hairy surfaces both above and below. The c ...

'' *millet midge ''

Geromyia penniseti ''Geromyia penniseti'', the millet grain midge, is a species of gall midge in the family Cecidomyiidae. It is found in Africa and South Asia. During the rainy season, it feeds on the developing grains of pearl millet Pearl millet (''Cenchrus ...

'' *''

Euproctis ''Euproctis'' is a genus of tussock moths in the family Erebidae described by Jacob Hübner in 1819. Species are cosmopolitan, widespread throughout Palearctic, African, Oriental and Australian regions. Molecular phylogenetic studies indicate tha ...

'' spp., ''

Orvasca subnotata ''Orvasca subnotata'' is a nygmiine tussock moth in the family Erebidae, found in Indomalaya and East Asia, where it is known as a pest that feeds on millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown aroun ...

'', and ''

Helicoverpa armigera ''Helicoverpa armigera'' is a species of Lepidoptera in the family Noctuidae. It is known as the cotton bollworm, corn earworm, Old World (African) bollworm, or scarce bordered straw (the lattermost in the UK, where it is a migrant). The larvae ...

'' *''

Spodoptera exempta The African armyworm (''Spodoptera exempta''), also called ''okalombo'', ''kommandowurm'', or nutgrass armyworm, is a species of moth of the family Noctuidae. The larvae often exhibit marching behavior when traveling to feeding sites, leading to ...

'', ''

Spilarctia obliqua ''Spilosoma obliqua'', the jute hairy caterpillar or Bihar hairy caterpillar, is a moth of the family Erebidae. It is found in south-eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, India, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar. Subspecies *''Spilarctia obliqua ...

'', ''

Pachnoda interrupta ''Pachnoda interrupta'', commonly known as the sorghum chafer, is a species of beetle of the family Scarabaeidae and subfamily Cetoniinae. Description This species can reach a body length of about . It is very variable in colour, from dappled ye ...

'', ''

Phyllophaga ''Phyllophaga'' is a very large genus (more than 900 species) of New World scarab beetles in the subfamily Melolonthinae. Common names for this genus and many other related genera in the subfamily Melolonthinae are May beetles, June bugs, and Ju ...

'' spp., ''

Thrips hawaiiensis ''Thrips hawaiiensis'' is a species of thrips. It is a pest of sorghum in Asia. References

Thrips, hawaiiensis Insect pests of millets {{Thrips-stub ...

'', ''

Myllocerus ''Myllocerus'' is a genus of oriental broad-nosed weevils in the beetle family Curculionidae The Curculionidae are a family of weevils, commonly called snout beetles or true weevils. They are one of the largest animal families, with 6,800 gene ...

'' spp., and ''

Peregrinus maidis ''Peregrinus maidis'', commonly known as the corn planthopper, is a species of insect in the order Hemiptera and the family Delphacidae. It is widespread throughout most tropical and subtropical regions on earth, including southern North America ...

'' *''

Holotrichia consanguinea ''Holotrichea consanguinea'', also known as the sugarcane beetle, is a beetle belonging to the genus ''Holotrichia''. It causes frequent problems for sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, Perennial plant, p ...

'' and ''

Holotrichia serrata ''Holotrichia serrata'', commonly known as the sugarcane white grub, or cockchafer grub, is a species of dung beetle found in India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Description Adult female beetles lay white, almost round eggs. The first and second ...

Africa

The larvae of several insect species, primarily belonging to the orders

Coleoptera Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describ ...

, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Hemiptera, as well as

Orthoptera Orthoptera () is an order of insects that comprises the grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets, including closely related insects, such as the bush crickets or katydids and wētā. The order is subdivided into two suborders: Caelifera – grass ...

adults, are persistent pearl millet pests in the

. The following pest species are reported for northern Mali. *''

'' (pearl millet stem-borer; Lepidoptera,

Crambidae The Crambidae are the grass moth family of lepidopterans. They are variable in appearance, the nominal subfamily Crambinae (grass moths) taking up closely folded postures on grass stems where they are inconspicuous, while other subfamilies includ ...

) attacks pearl millet, and also sorghum and maize, especially in the Sahel. It is the main pearl millet pest in

Senegal Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣� ...

. *''

Heliocheilus albipunctella ''Heliocheilus albipunctella'', the millet head miner moth, is a moth in the family Noctuidae. It is found in the Sahelian region of West Africa. Life cycle The flight period of the adult moth coincides with the peak of millet panicle emergen ...

'' (pearl millet head-miner; Lepidoptera,

Noctuidae The Noctuidae, commonly known as owlet moths, cutworms or armyworms, are a family of moths. They are considered the most controversial family in the superfamily Noctuoidea because many of the clades are constantly changing, along with the othe ...

) attacks pearl millet. The larvae bore in a spiral path, destroying florets or grain. *''

'' (millet grain midge): The larvae eat the developing grain and form white pupal cases attached to the tips of spikelets. Reported losses in Senegal are as high as 90 percent. *''

'' (millet beetle) *''

Psalydolytta fusca ''Psalydolytta fusca'' is a species of blister beetle. It is a pest of millets in Africa.Ruparao T. Gahukar, Gadi V. P. Reddy. Management of Economically Important Insect Pests of Millet. ''Journal of Integrated Pest Management'' (2019) 10(1): 28 ...

'' and ''

Psalydolytta vestita ''Psalydolytta vestita'' is a species of blister beetle. It is a pest of millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species ...

'' (pearl millet blister beetle; Coleoptera,

Meloidae Blister beetles are beetles of the family Meloidae, so called for their defensive secretion of a blistering agent, cantharidin. About 7,500 species are known worldwide. Many are conspicuous and some are aposematically colored, announcing their ...

) attack pearl millet. They are major millet pests in Mali. *''

Rhinyptia infuscata ''Rhinyptia infuscata'' is a species of scarab beetle. It is a pest of millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species ...

'' (Scarabaeidae, Rutelinae,

Anomalini Anomalini is a tribe of shining leaf chafers in the family Scarabaeidae The family Scarabaeidae, as currently defined, consists of over 30,000 species of beetles worldwide; they are often called scarabs or scarab beetles. The classification o ...

) is a nocturnal beetle, recorded as a locally important pest on millet flowers in

Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesSenegal Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣� ...

, and as a pest on maize, where the larvae attack the roots. *''

'' (pink stem borer), especially in lowland forests. This species and the sugarcane borer ('' Eldana saccharina'') are the primary pests of the pearl millet in

Ivory Coast Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital is Yamoussoukro, in the centre of the country, while its largest city and economic centre is ...

. *

gall midge Cecidomyiidae is a family of flies known as gall midges or gall gnats. As the name implies, the larvae of most gall midges feed within plant tissue, creating abnormal plant growths called galls. Cecidomyiidae are very fragile small insects us ...

s (Diptera,

Cecidomyiidae Cecidomyiidae is a family of flies known as gall midges or gall gnats. As the name implies, the larvae of most gall midges feed within plant tissue, creating abnormal plant growths called galls. Cecidomyiidae are very fragile small insects us ...

): millet grain midge (''

''), sorghum midge (''

Contarinia sorghicola ''Stenodiplosis sorghicola'', the sorghum midge, is a species of gall midge in the family Cecidomyiidae. It is a pest of millets. The species is native to Africa and is also found in India. During the rainy season, it feeds on the developing grai ...

''), and African rice gall midge (''

Orseolia oryzivora ''Orseolia oryzivora'', also called the African rice gall midge, is a species of small fly in the family Cecidomyiidae. It is a major insect pest of rice Rice is the seed of the grass species '' Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonl ...

''). *''

Dysdercus volkeri ''Dysdercus'' is a widespread genus of true bugs in the family Pyrrhocoridae; a number of species attacking cotton bolls may be called "cotton stainers". Description Species may be confused with bugs in the family Lygaeidae, but can be distingu ...

'' (cotton-stainer; Hemiptera,

Pyrrhocoridae Pyrrhocoridae is a family of insects with more than 300 species world-wide. Many are red coloured and are known as red bugs and some species are called cotton stainers because their feeding activities leave an indelible yellow-brownish stain on c ...

) attacks flowers. Grasshoppers that frequently attack millets in the

Dogon country Dogon country (French: ''Pays Dogon'') is a region of eastern Mali and northwestern Burkina Faso populated mainly by the Dogon people, a diverse ethnic group in West Africa with diverse languages. Like the term Serer country occupied by the Ser ...

of Mali are ''

'', ''

Kraussaria angulifera ''Kraussaria angulifera'' is a species of grasshopper in the family Acrididae found in Africa. The grasshopper is commonly found in the Sahelian region of West Africa, where it is known as a common pest of the pearl millet. Human consumption ' ...

'', ''

Cataloipus cymbiferus ''Cataloipus cymbiferus'' is a West African species of grasshopper in the family Acrididae. In Mali, it is a pest that frequently attacks the pearl millet Pearl millet (''Cenchrus americanus'', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum gla ...

'', and ''

''. In northern Ghana, ''

Poophilus costalis ''Poophilus costalis'' is a species of true bug in the family Aphrophoridae. It is a pest of millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and hu ...

'' (spittle bug) is reported as a millet pest, as well as ''

'', ''

'', and caterpillars of ''

Amsacta moloneyi ''Amsacta moloneyi'' is a moth of the family Erebidae. It is found in Africa. In northern Ghana, it has been reported as a pest of pearl millet Pearl millet (''Cenchrus americanus'', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum glaucum''; als ...

'' and ''

''. In northern Nigeria, heavy infestations of ''

Hycleus ''Hycleus'' is a genus of blister beetle belonging to the Meloidae family found in Africa and Asia. The genus contains over 400 species, which historically have been confused with the genus '' Mylabris''. Ecology Adults feed mainly on flowers f ...

'' species, including ''

Hycleus terminatus ''Hycleus'' is a genus of blister beetle belonging to the Meloidae family found in Africa and Asia. The genus contains over 400 species, which historically have been confused with the genus ''Mylabris''. Ecology Adults feed mainly on flowers f ...

'' (syn. ''

Mylabris afzelli ''Mylabris'' is a genus of beetles in the family Meloidae. It is endemic to the Palearctic realm. The species-rich genus ''Hycleus'' (c. 430 spp.) was historically confused with ''Mylabris''. It is superficially similar, but is centered on the A ...

''), ''

Hycleus fimbriatus ''Hycleus'' is a genus of blister beetle belonging to the Meloidae family found in Africa and Asia. The genus contains over 400 species, which historically have been confused with the genus ''Mylabris''. Ecology Adults feed mainly on flowers fr ...

'' (syn. ''

Mylabris fimbriatus ''Mylabris'' is a genus of beetles in the family Meloidae. It is endemic to the Palearctic realm. The species-rich genus ''Hycleus'' (c. 430 spp.) was historically confused with ''Mylabris''. It is superficially similar, but is centered on the Af ...

''), ''

Hycleus hermanniae ''Hycleus'' is a genus of blister beetle belonging to the Meloidae family found in Africa and Asia. The genus contains over 400 species, which historically have been confused with the genus ''Mylabris''. Ecology Adults feed mainly on flowers f ...

'' (syn. '' Coryna hermanniae''), and ''

Hycleus chevrolati ''Hycleus'' is a genus of blister beetle belonging to the Meloidae family found in Africa and Asia. The genus contains over 400 species, which historically have been confused with the genus ''Mylabris''. Ecology Adults feed mainly on flowers f ...

'' (syn. '' Coryna chevrolati''), have affected early plantings of pearl millet crops.

Other regions

In South India, pests include the shoot fly ''

''. In North America, regular pests include the chinch bug ''

''.

Gallery

File:Checking pearl millet crop.jpg, A scientist in

Zimbabwe Zimbabwe (), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the south-west, Zambia to the north, and Mozam ...

checks a pearl millet crop File:Mahangu poundin.jpg, Mahangu pounding in

File:Mahangu pounding.jpg, Mahangu pounding in

File:Making dough from flour (10692692875).jpg, This flour mill in

Tanzania Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands ...

mills pearl millet.

Description

Cultivation

Structure and physical properties

Composition

Culinary use

Around the world

India

Africa

Sahel

Namibia

Research and development

Pests

Africa

Other regions

Gallery

References

Further reading