Cuban boat people mainly refers to

refugee A refugee, according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), is a person "forced to flee their own country and seek safety in another country. They are unable to return to their own country because of feared persecution as ...

s who flee

Cuba Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba (largest island), Isla de la Juventud, and List of islands of Cuba, 4,195 islands, islets and cays surrounding the main island. It is located where the ...

by boat and ship to the

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. There have been four distinct waves of immigration, both legal and illegal, from Cuba to the United States. These four waves include early boat arrivals, the ''marielitos'', the ''balseros'', and the post "Wet foot, dry foot" arrivals. These waves can be attributed to specific periods in Cuba's socioeconomic decline and stages in Cuban–U.S. relations. Since the 1960s, the process by which ''balseros'' would immigrate would become increasingly difficult and dangerous leading to a variety of controversy, both legislative and humanitarian.

History

Cuban immigration to the U.S. via boat occurred in waves shaped by political and economic crises. Early exiles (1961–1965) fled Castro's regime, often via small boats. The Mariel Boatlift (1973–1980) saw over 125,000 Cubans, including "undesirables," migrate amid economic struggles. The Balsero Crisis (1993–1995) involved 35,000 Cubans on makeshift rafts. After the 2017 repeal of "wet-foot, dry-foot," smaller-scale migration persists, with stricter U.S. policies. Each wave reflects Cuba's hardships and evolving U.S. responses.

Early boat arrivals, 1961–1965

The first major wave of Cuban boat people came after the failure of the

Bay of Pigs Invasion The Bay of Pigs Invasion (, sometimes called or after the Playa Girón) was a failed military landing operation on the southwestern coast of Cuba in April 1961 by the United States of America and the Cuban Democratic Revolutionary Front ...

and the

Cuban Missile Crisis The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis () in Cuba, or the Caribbean Crisis (), was a 13-day confrontation between the governments of the United States and the Soviet Union, when American deployments of Nuclear weapons d ...

, which ended a " temporary exile status" period of commercial air travel between the United States and Cuba, which was positively received by the American public. This had seen a score of roughly 125,000 Cuban exiles reach U.S. soil that were to return upon an overthrown Castro regime that never happened. The majority of these migrants were part of the wealthier class, hence they were ones most affected by Cuba's socialist transition and the nationalization of the economy. During this time, the

United States Coast Guard The United States Coast Guard (USCG) is the maritime security, search and rescue, and Admiralty law, law enforcement military branch, service branch of the armed forces of the United States. It is one of the country's eight Uniformed services ...

would make no attempt to turn back undocumented Cubans who were usually arriving in small boats. Afterwards, Cubans who wished to come to the United States, would have to do so ''illegally'' by crossing the

Florida Straits The Straits of Florida, Florida Straits, or Florida Strait () is a strait located south-southeast of the North American mainland, generally accepted to be between the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean, and between the Florida Keys (U.S.) ...

, or travel to other countries. Between 1962 and 1965 around 6,700 Cubans arrived in Florida in makeshift boats and other vessels. Emigrants were not given a process of migration until the Camarioca boatlift in 1965.

"Marielitos" (1973–1980)

As relations with Cuba slowly and steadily improved, a foreign policy that enacted a migration intervention to begin a 7-year program of passages called the

Mariel boatlift The Mariel boatlift () was a mass emigration of Cubans who traveled from Cuba's Mariel Harbor to the United States between April 15 and October 31, 1980. The term "" is used to refer to these refugees in both Spanish and English. While the ex ...

, which was perceived to 'aid Cuba at ridding itself of undesirables', was met with little public support. After stages of these initial trips, Vice President

Walter Mondale Walter Frederick "Fritz" Mondale (January 5, 1928April 19, 2021) was the 42nd vice president of the United States serving from 1977 to 1981 under President Jimmy Carter. He previously served as a U.S. senator from Minnesota from 1964 to 1976. ...

of the

Carter administration Jimmy Carter's tenure as the List of presidents of the United States, 39th president of the United States began with Inauguration of Jimmy Carter, his inauguration on January 20, 1977, and ended on January 20, 1981. Carter, a Democratic Party ...

served to justify this political position by stating there "is no better proof of the failure of Castro's

revolution In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elements ...

than the dramatic exodus which is currently taking place." Observing the economic successes of those who left and the failure of the Cuban economy post-revolution, the Marielitos were motivated by economic opportunity. This specific group mainly consisted of a – younger and more Afro-Cuban demographic. There was a growing stigma that surrounded ''marielitos'' as they were not viewed as romantically as the initial exiles. Even though President

Jimmy Carter James Earl Carter Jr. (October 1, 1924December 29, 2024) was an American politician and humanitarian who served as the 39th president of the United States from 1977 to 1981. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party ...

welcomed migrants in with open arms, it was not well received, as the image of a ''criminal'' grew rampant among the public eye, even though it were only about 10–20% of them. Castro had called these people the ''escoria'' ("scum") of his country: the "homosexuals, drug addicts, and gambling addicts". Castro successfully painted this image of the Marielitos, leaving stigmas and stereotypes that endure to present day.

"Balseros" (1993–1995)

After years of economic decline since the Mariel boatlift, a few thousand Cuban boat people had made their way to the U.S. in 1993 after a rise from a few hundred in 1989. After

riots A riot or mob violence is a form of civil disorder commonly characterized by a group lashing out in a violent public disturbance against authority, property, or people. Riots typically involve destruction of property, public or private. The p ...

ensued in

Havana Havana (; ) is the capital and largest city of Cuba. The heart of La Habana Province, Havana is the country's main port and commercial center. A daily average of 50 Cuban migrants were intercepted by the U.S. Coast Guard off the southeastern coast of Florida in the month of July 1994. U.S. President Bill Clinton announced that any rafters intercepted at sea would be detained at the

Guantanamo Bay Naval Base Guantanamo Bay Naval Base (), officially known as Naval Station Guantanamo Bay or NSGB, (also called GTMO, pronounced Gitmo as jargon by the U.S. military) is a United States military base located on of land and water on the shore of Guant ...

. Around 31,000 rafters would be detained at the base, which became known as the Balsero crisis. This period of detainment lasted roughly two years with an eventual compromise between the United States and Cuba resulting in a choice for those in custody to return to Cuba or take the gamble of acquiring a United States visa. These "Balseros" () as these boat people were known during this time, were known to wash up to shore at the Floridian coast on any conceivable thing that could float such as on wooden rafts or truck tires. These homemade rafts became so prevalent that it became a business in Cuba to construct and sell them. Other Cubans wishing to flee went to the extent of hijacking four vessels owned by the state.

Victims of "13 de Marzo" v. Cuba

A complaint was filed with the

Inter-American Commission on Human Rights The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (the IACHR or, in the three other official languages Spanish, French, and Portuguese language, Portuguese CIDH, ''Comisión Interamericana de los Derechos Humanos'', ''Commission Interaméricaine des ...

on July 19, 1994 regarding an old

tugboat A tugboat or tug is a marine vessel that manoeuvres other vessels by pushing or pulling them, with direct contact or a tow line. These boats typically tug ships in circumstances where they cannot or should not move under their own power, suc ...

with 72 people on board, who were attempting to flee Cuba hours before dawn on July 13

994 Year 994 ( CMXCIV) was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Byzantine Empire * September 15 – Battle of the Orontes: Fatimid forces, under Turkish general Manjutakin (also the governor ...

who were attacked with pressurized water hose equipment just 7 miles off the coast of Cuba by 4 boats organized by the Cuban State. The boat named ''13 de Marzo'', eventually sank with a death toll of 41, which included 10 minors after the cries of women and children for it to stop were in vain. The Cuban government argued that 13 de Marzo was stolen at a dock and that authorities were attempting to intercept it. Days following the tragedy, the Cuban government was requested to recover the bodies from the bottom of the sea but declined citing the lack of experienced divers. Instead, a

nonprofit organization A nonprofit organization (NPO), also known as a nonbusiness entity, nonprofit institution, not-for-profit organization, or simply a nonprofit, is a non-governmental (private) legal entity organized and operated for a collective, public, or so ...

named ''Hermanos al Rescate'' (

Brothers to the Rescue Brothers to the Rescue () is a Miami-based activist nonprofit organization headed by José Basulto, who claimed to be a CIA operative. Formed by Cuban exiles, the group is widely known for its opposition to the Cuban government and its former l ...

), whose mission is to rescue boat people attempting to leave Cuba, made a request to the Cuban government to recover these bodies themselves but were denied.

Wet feet, dry feet policy

In an attempt to control the influx of boat people, the

Clinton administration Bill Clinton's tenure as the 42nd president of the United States began with his first inauguration on January 20, 1993, and ended on January 20, 2001. Clinton, a Democrat from Arkansas, took office following his victory over Republican in ...

agreed to grant 20,000 visas annually for Cubans who wished asylum, which became known as the

wet feet, dry feet policy The wet feet, dry feet policy or wet foot, dry foot policy is a 1995 interpretation, followed until 2017, of the United States Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966. The original Act directs that anyone who emigrated from Cuba and entered the United Sta ...

. This policy allowed the U.S. Coast Guard to return defectors – found at sea and equalized the proportion of visas being granted to Cuban immigrants compared to immigrants from other countries. This policy simultaneously repealed the "safe haven camps" that were previously instituted to detain roughly 28,000 Cubans. This policy replaced the original Cuban Adjustment Act and provided a stricter control over immigration.

Post wet foot, dry foot arrivals

Fearing that the end of the wet feet, dry feet policy was near after an announcement by

Barack Obama Barack Hussein Obama II (born August 4, 1961) is an American politician who was the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the first African American president in American history. O ...

in December 2014 regarding possible changes to the

Cuban Adjustment Act The Cuban Adjustment Act (CAA) (), Public Law 89-732, is a United States federal law enacted on November 2, 1966. Passed by the 89th United States Congress and signed by President Lyndon Johnson, the legislation applies to citizens of Cuba admit ...

, there was an increased concern by the U.S. Coast Guard about a possible spike in boat people, which they had intercepted an increased 117% more Cubans in 2014 than the previous year. In 2017, the wet feet, dry feet policy finally came to an end. Fewer Cubans attempted to make the journey to the United States. Those who manage to arrive in Florida would only be able to remain legally by applying for political asylum. The manner in which Cubans now defect, usually to the United States, is far more complicated. These new courses of immigration often involve elaborate paths through countries such as Mexico and Puerto Rico. In recent years, direct defection to the United States is usually done via plane. Other more sophisticated operations have formed with the use of speedboats. These operations provide a higher level of guarantee that those fleeing will be able to achieve "dry feet".

Deaths

Those fleeing often endure dangerous conditions and do not have the experience to handle such an excursion. It is estimated that thousands of ''balseros'' has perished at sea in their flight away from Cuba. These conditions have led to crises like the case of Elian Gonzalez. Elian was a child at the time when he survived a failed ''balsero'' operation, during which his mother and her partner drowned along with other passengers. Events like these have led to outcry from the international community, especially in regards to the humanitarian aspect of those fleeing. Any failed attempt to cross the sea by raft can end in drowning (with the same characteristics about drowning prevention and drowning

management Management (or managing) is the administration of organizations, whether businesses, nonprofit organizations, or a Government agency, government bodies through business administration, Nonprofit studies, nonprofit management, or the political s ...

). The journey across the Florida straits contains several risks such as sharks, rough waters, drug and human trafficking routes. The appearing of mobile phones with

GPS The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based hyperbolic navigation system owned by the United States Space Force and operated by Mission Delta 31. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provide geol ...

and not-terrestrial satellite phones has increased the possibilities of survival, because they allow people to call through the satellite to ask for help, even being in the middle of the sea at a long distance from the coast.

References

External links

* Constitutional Rights Foundation (CRF)
Educating About Immigration: History Lesson 9: Refugees from the Caribbean: Cuban and Haiti "Boat People"
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cuban boat people Cuban-American history Cuba–United States relations Cuban diaspora Cuban exiles Cuban refugees Migrant crises Refugees in the United States