The Creoles of color are a historic ethnic group of Creole people that developed in the former

French French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents ** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...

and Spanish colonies of

Louisiana Louisiana , group=pronunciation (French: ''La Louisiane'') is a U.S. state, state in the Deep South and South Central United States, South Central regions of the United States. It is the List of U.S. states and territories by area, 20th-smal ...

(especially in the city of

New Orleans New Orleans ( , ,New Orleans

Mississippi Mississippi () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered to the north by Tennessee; to the east by Alabama; to the south by the Gulf of Mexico; to the southwest by Louisiana; and to the northwest by Arkansas. Mis ...

, Alabama, and Northwestern Florida i.e. Pensacola, Florida in what is now the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., federal district, five ma ...

. French colonists in Louisiana first used the term "Creole" to refer to people born in the colony, rather than in France. The term "Creoles of color" was typically applied to

mixed-race Mixed race people are people of more than one race or ethnicity. A variety of terms have been used both historically and presently for mixed race people in a variety of contexts, including ''multiethnic'', ''polyethnic'', occasionally ''bi-eth ...

Creoles born from the

and Spanish settlers intermarrying with

Africans African or Africans may refer to: * Anything from or pertaining to the continent of Africa: ** People who are native to Africa, descendants of natives of Africa, or individuals who trace their ancestry to indigenous inhabitants of Africa *** Ethn ...

or from manumitted slaves, forming a class of ''Gens de couleur libres'' (

free people of color In the context of the history of slavery in the Americas, free people of color (French: ''gens de couleur libres''; Spanish: ''gente de color libre'') were primarily people of mixed African, European, and Native American descent who were not ...

). Today, many of these Creoles of color have assimilated into

Black culture Black culture refers to: * Culture of Africa * African-American culture * The culture of black communities in other parts of the world, see Black people Black is a racialized classification of people, usually a political and skin color-ba ...

, while some chose to remain a separate yet inclusive subsection of the

African American African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans and Afro-Americans) are an Race and ethnicity in the United States, ethnic group consisting of Americans with partial or total ancestry from sub-Saharan Africa. The term "African American ...

ethnic group.

Historical Context

''Créole'' is derived from latin and means to "create", and was first used in the "New World" by the Portuguese to describe local goods and products, but was later used by the Spanish during colonial occupation to mean any native inhabitant of the New World. The term ''Créole'' was first used by French colonists to distinguish themselves from foreign-born settlers, and later as distinct from

Anglo-American Anglo-Americans are people who are English-speaking inhabitants of Anglo-America. It typically refers to the nations and ethnic groups in the Americas that speak English as a native language, making up the majority of people in the world who spe ...

settlers. ''Créole'' referred to people born in Louisiana whose ancestors were not born in the territory. Colonial documents show that the term ''Créole'' was used variously at different times to refer to

white people White is a Race (human categorization), racialized classification of people and a Human skin color, skin color specifier, generally used for people of Ethnic groups in Europe, European origin, although the definition can vary depending on con ...

people, and

black people Black is a racialized classification of people, usually a political and skin color-based category for specific populations with a mid to dark brown complexion. Not all people considered "black" have dark skin; in certain countries, often ...

, both free-born and enslaved. The "of color" is considered a necessary qualifier, as "Creole"(''Créole)'' did not convey any racial connotation. During French colonization, social order was divided into three distinct categories: Creole aristocrats (''grands habitants''); a prosperous, educated group of multi-racial Creoles of European, African and Native American descent ('' bourgeoisie''); and the far larger class of African slaves and Creole peasants (''petits habitants''). French Law regulated interracial conduct within the colony. An example of such laws are the Louisiana Code Noir. Though interracial relations were legally forbidden, or heavily restricted, they were not uncommon.

Mixed-race Mixed race people are people of more than one race or ethnicity. A variety of terms have been used both historically and presently for mixed race people in a variety of contexts, including ''multiethnic'', ''polyethnic'', occasionally ''bi-eth ...

Creoles of color became identified as a distinct ethnic group, '' Gens de couleur libres'' ( free persons of color), and were granted their free-person status by the Louisiana Supreme Court in 1810. Some have suggested certain social markers of creole identity as being of Catholic faith, having a strong work ethic, being an avid fan of literature, and being fluent in French-- standard French, Creole and

Cajun The Cajuns (; French: ''les Cadjins'' or ''les Cadiens'' ), also known as Louisiana ''Acadians'' (French: ''les Acadiens''), are a Louisiana French ethnicity mainly found in the U.S. state of Louisiana. While Cajuns are usually described as ...

are all considered acceptable versions of the French language. For many, being a descendant of the ''Gens de couleur libres'' is an identity marker specific to Creoles of color. Many Creoles of color were free-born, and their descendants often enjoyed many of the same privileges that whites did, including (but not limited to) property ownership, formal education, and service in the militia. During the

antebellum Antebellum, Latin for "before war", may refer to: United States history * Antebellum South, the pre-American Civil War period in the Southern United States ** Antebellum Georgia ** Antebellum South Carolina ** Antebellum Virginia * Antebellum arc ...

period, their society was structured along class lines and they tended to marry within their group. While it was not illegal, it was a social taboo for Creoles of color to marry slaves and it was a rare occurrence. Some of the wealthier and prosperous Creoles of color owned slaves themselves. Other Creoles of color, such as

Thomy Lafon Thomy Lafon (December 28, 1810– December 23, 1893) was a Creole of color teacher, businessman, and philanthropist in New Orleans. Biography He was born free on December 28, 1810, to a mixed-race, francophone family. His mother, Modeste ...

, used their social position to support the abolitionist cause. Another Creole of color, wealthy planter Francis E. Dumas, emancipated all of his slaves in 1863 and organized them into a company in the Second Regiment of the Louisiana Native Guards, in which he served as an officer.

Migration

First Wave

The first wave of creole migration occurred between 1840 and 1890 with the majority of migrants fleeing to ethnic-dominant outskirts of larger US cities and abroad where race was more fluid.

Second Wave

The reclassification of Creoles of color as black prompted the second migratory wave of Creoles of color between 1920 and 1940.

Military

Creoles of Color had been members of the militia for decades under both French and Spanish control of the colony of

. For example, around 80 free Creoles of Color were recruited into the militia that participated in the Battle of Baton Rouge in 1779. 69 After the United States made the

Louisiana Purchase The Louisiana Purchase (french: Vente de la Louisiane, translation=Sale of Louisiana) was the acquisition of the territory of Louisiana by the United States from the French First Republic in 1803. In return for fifteen million dollars, or app ...

in 1803 and acquired the large territory west of the Mississippi, the Creoles of color in New Orleans volunteered their services and pledged their loyalty to their new country. They also took an oath of loyalty to William C. C. Claiborne, the Louisiana Territorial Governor appointed by President

Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, philosopher, and Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He was previously the nati ...

. Months after the colony became part of the United States, Claiborne's administration was faced with a dilemma previously unknown in the U.S.; integration in the military by incorporating entire units of previously established "colored" militia. In a February 20, 1804 letter, Secretary of War Henry Dearborn wrote to Claiborne saying, "…it would be prudent not to increase the Corps, but to diminish, if it could be done without giving offense…" A decade later, the militia of color that remained volunteered to take up arms when the British began landing troops on American soil outside of New Orleans in December 1814. This was the commencement of the

Battle of New Orleans The Battle of New Orleans was fought on January 8, 1815 between the British Army under Major General Sir Edward Pakenham and the United States Army under Brevet Major General Andrew Jackson, roughly 5 miles (8 km) southeast of the Fren ...

. After the

, many Creoles of color lost their favorable social status, despite their service to the militia and their social status prior to the U.S. takeover. The territory and New Orleans became the destination of many migrants from the United States, as well as new immigrants. Migrants from the South imposed their

caste system Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultural ...

. In this new caste system, all people with African ancestry or visible African features were classified as black, and therefore categorized as second class citizens, regardless of their education, property ownership, or previous status in French society. Former free Creoles of Color were relegated to the ranks of emancipated slaves. Marianne Celeste Dragon 1795

A notable creole family was that of Andrea Dimitry. Dimitry was a Greek immigrant who married Marianne Céleste Dragon a woman of African and Greek ancestry around 1799. Their son creole author and educator Alexander Dimitry was the first person of color to represent the United States as Ambassador to Costa Rica and

Nicaragua Nicaragua (; ), officially the Republic of Nicaragua (), is the largest Sovereign state, country in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean Sea, Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to ...

. He was also the first superintendent of schools in Louisiana. Andrea Dimitry's children were upper-class elite creole. They were mostly educated at Georgetown University. One of his daughters married into the English royal

House of Stuart The House of Stuart, originally spelt Stewart, was a royal house of Scotland, England, Ireland and later Great Britain. The family name comes from the office of High Steward of Scotland, which had been held by the family progenitor Walter ...

. Some of the creole children were prominent members of the Confederate Government during the American Civil War."Louise Pecquet du Bellet"
''Some Prominent Virginia Families Vol. 4'' Lynchburg, VA: J.P. Bell Company Inc. 1907: p. 188

Activism

With the advantage of having been better educated than the new

freedmen A freedman or freedwoman is a formerly enslaved person who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Historically, enslaved people were freed by manumission (granted freedom by their captor-owners), abolitionism, emancipation (gra ...

, many Creoles of color were active in the struggle for

civil rights Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure one's entitlement to participate in the civil and political life ...

and served in political office during Reconstruction, helping to bring freedmen into the political system. During late Reconstruction, white Democrats regained political control of state legislatures across the former Confederate states by intimidation of blacks and other Republicans at the polls. Through the late nineteenth century, they worked to impose white supremacy under

Jim Crow laws The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Other areas of the United States were affected by formal and informal policies of segregation as well, but many states outside the Sou ...

and customs. They disfranchised the majority of blacks, especially by creating barriers to voter registration through devices such as poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clauses, etc., stripping African Americans, including Creoles of color, of political power. Creoles of color were among the African Americans who were limited when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the case of '' Plessy v. Ferguson'' in 1896, deciding that "separate but equal" accommodations were constitutional. It permitted states to impose Jim Crow rules on federal railways and later interstate buses. On June 14, 2013 Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal signed into law Act 276, creating the "prestige" license plate stating "I'm Creole", in honor of the Creoles' contributions, culture, and heritage.

Education

It was common for wealthy francophone Gens de couleur to study in Europe, with some opting to not return due to greater liberties in France. When not educated abroad, or in whites-only schools in the United States by virtue of passing, Creoles of color were often homeschooled or enrolled in private schools. These private schools were often financed and staffed by affluent Creoles of color. For example, ''

L'Institute Catholique The Institute Catholique, also known as L'Institut Catholique des orphelins indigents (Catholic Institute for Indigent Orphans) and the Couvent School, was a Catholic school founded in New Orleans in 1840. It mainly served the non-orphan children o ...

'' was financed by Madame Marie Couvent with writers

Armand Lanusse Armand Lanusse (c.1810–March 16, 1868) was a Creoles of color, Creole of color, educator, poet, and writer from New Orleans, Louisiana. He is the editor of ''Les Cenelles'' (1845), a collection of poems by fellow Creoles of color in New Orleans ...

and Jonnai Questy serving as educators. In 1850 it was determined that 80% of all Gens de couleur libres were literate; a figure significantly higher than the white population of Louisiana at the time.

Contribution to the arts

Literature

During the antebellum period, well-educated francophone gens de couleur libres contributed extensively to literary collections, such as ''Les Cenelles,'' with a significant portion of these works dedicated to describing the conditions of their enslaved compatriots. One example of such texts is ''Le Mulatre (The Mulatto)'' by Victor Séjour, a Creole of color. Other themes approached aspects of love, religion and many texts were likened to French romanticism. In daily newspapers locally and abroad, pieces written by Creoles of color were prominent. Even during the ban on racial commentary during the antebellum period, pieces written by these creoles reformulated existing french themes to subtly critique race relations in Louisiana, while still gaining in popularity among all readers.

Music

Some Creoles of color trained as classical musicians in 19th-century Louisiana. These musicians would often study with those associated with the French Opera House; some traveled to

Paris Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. ...

to complete their studies. Creole composers of that time are discussed in ''

Music and Some Highly Musical People ''Music and Some Highly Musical People'' is a history of African-American music by James Monroe Trotter first published in 1878. It represents perhaps the first attempt to assess American music across multiple genres in a single volume. The boo ...

'' by James Monroe Trotter, and ''Nos Hommes et Notre Histoire'' by Rodolphe Lucien Desdunes.

Notable classical Creole musicians

*Basile Barès *

Edmund Dédé Edmund is a masculine given name or surname in the English language. The name is derived from the Old English elements ''ēad'', meaning "prosperity" or "riches", and ''mund'', meaning "protector". Persons named Edmund include: People Kings and ...

*Laurent Dubuclet *

Louis Moreau Gottschalk Louis Moreau Gottschalk (May 8, 1829 – December 18, 1869) was an American composer and pianist, best known as a virtuoso performer of his own romantic piano works. He spent most of his working career outside the United States. Life and care ...

Lucien-Léon Guillaume Lambert Lucien-Leon Guillaume Lambert or Lucien Lambert, Jr. (1858–1945) was a French pianist and composer of African-American Creole descent. His family was noted for talent in music and gained international acclaim. Life and career Lucien-Leon Lambe ...

* Charles Lucien Lambert *

Sidney Lambert Sidney Lambert (18381905) was an African-American pianist, music educator and composer, born before the American Civil War as a free person of color. He and his family were noted for talent in music and gained international acclaim. Life and car ...

* Victor-Eugene McCarty *Samuel Snaër

Jazz musicians

Creoles of color from the New Orleans area were active in defining the earliest days of jazz.Scott DeVeaux, Gary Giddins
Jazz
wwnorton.com, Accessed November 22, 2013 Some of the most notable names: *

Vernel Fournier Vernel Anthony Fournier (July 30, 1928 – November 4, 2000) and, from 1975, known as Amir Rushdan, was an American jazz drummer probably best known for his work with Ahmad Jamal from 1956 to 1962. Biography Fournier was born in New Orleans ...

* George Baquet *

Paul Barbarin Adolphe Paul Barbarin (May 5, 1899 – February 17, 1969) was an American jazz drummer from New Orleans. Career Barbarin grew up in New Orleans in a family of musicians, including his father, three of his brothers, and his nephew (Danny Barker) ...

* Louis Barbarin *

Danny Barker Daniel Moses Barker (January 13, 1909 – March 13, 1994) was an American jazz musician, vocalist, and author from New Orleans. He was a rhythm guitarist for Cab Calloway, Lucky Millinder and Benny Carter during the 1930s. One of Barker's ea ...

* Emile Barnes * Paul Barnes *

Sidney Bechet Sidney Bechet (May 14, 1897 – May 14, 1959) was an American jazz saxophonist, clarinetist, and composer. He was one of the first important Solo (music), soloists in jazz, and first recorded several months before trumpeter Louis Armstrong. His ...

Barney Bigard Albany Leon "Barney" Bigard (March 3, 1906 – June 27, 1980) was an American jazz clarinetist known for his 15-year tenure with Duke Ellington. He also played tenor saxophone. Biography Bigard was born in New Orleans to Creole parents, Ale ...

Louis Cottrell, Sr. Louis Cottrell (December 25, 1878 – October 17, 1927) was an influential American jazz drummer. "Old Man" Cottrell was the father of Louis Cottrell Jr. and great-grandfather of New Orleans jazz drummer Louis Cottrell. Cottrell was born and d ...

* Louis Cottrell, Jr. * Joe Darensbourg *

Louis Nelson Delisle "Big Eye" Louis Nelson Delisle (January 28, 1885 – August 20, 1949) was an American early twentieth-century Dixieland jazz clarinetist in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. He also played double bass, banjo, and accordion. Early life and e ...

Cie Frazier Josiah "Cie" Frazier (February 23, 1904 – January 10, 1985) was an American jazz drummer. Frazier studied drums under several New Orleans jazz musicians, including Louis Cottrell, Sr., Red Happy Bolton, and Face-O Woods. He joined the G ...

Illinois Jacquet Jean-Baptiste "Illinois" Jacquet (October 30, 1922 – July 22, 2004) was an American jazz tenor saxophonist, best remembered for his solo on "Flying Home", critically recognized as the first R&B saxophone solo. Although he was a pioneer of t ...

* Freddie Keppard * Lawrence Marrero *

Jelly Roll Morton Ferdinand Joseph LaMothe (later Morton; c. September 20, 1890 – July 10, 1941), known professionally as Jelly Roll Morton, was an American ragtime and jazz pianist, bandleader, and composer. Morton was jazz's first arranger, proving that a ge ...

(Ferdinand J. LaMothe) *

Albert Nicholas Albert Nicholas (May 27, 1900 – September 3, 1973) was an American jazz clarinet player. Career Nicholas's primary instrument was the clarinet, which he studied with Lorenzo Tio in his hometown of New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. La ...

Kid Ory Edward "Kid" Ory (December 25, 1886 – January 23, 1973) was an American jazz composer, trombonist and bandleader. One of the early users of the glissando technique, he helped establish it as a central element of New Orleans jazz. He was b ...

* Manuel Perez * Jimmy Palao * Alcide Pavageau * Alphonse Picou *

De De Pierce Joseph De Lacroix "De De" Pierce (February 18, 1904 – November 23, 1973) was an American jazz trumpeter and cornetist. He is best remembered for the songs "Peanut Vendor" and "Dippermouth Blues", both with Billie Pierce. Biography Pierce wa ...

* Armand J. Piron * John Robichaux * Omer Simeon * Lorenzo Tio * Eddie Bo

References

External links

*Henry, LaFleur, and Simien (July 2015).
In their words: We are all Creole
, ''DailyWorld.com''. *''History Detectives'', S7E2:
'Creole Poems'
, ''PBS.org''.
C.R.E.O.L.E. Inc.
("An organization dedicated to preserving the Creole Heritage.") *
ZydecoNation.org
' (documentary) *''Nightline'' (December ):
Test Suggests 'Black' Man Is Really Not
, ''ABCNews.Go.com''. *Le Melle, Stacy Parker (2013).

, ''HuffingtonPost.com''. *Duggar, Nikki (2009). " ttp://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/945 I Am What I Say I Am: Racial and Cultural Identity among Creoles of Color in New Orleans, ''ScholarWorks.UNO.edu''.
PDF
*Landry, Christophe (2015).
A Creole Melting Pot: the Politics of Language, Race, and Identity in southwest Louisiana, 1918-45
, ''Academia.edu''. *Landry, Christophe (2016).
Beyoncé and Solange Knowles breaking boundaries
, ''MyLHCV.com''. *Rosenberg, Jeremy (2012).

, ''KCET.org''. *Tervalon, Jervey (2006).
The Creole Connection
, ''LAWeekly.com''. *Flaccus, Gillian (2005).

, ''Legacy.SanDiegoUnionTribune.com''. *Goodrich, Juliette (2013).
Bay Area Grammy Nominee Represents Local Creole Community
, ''SanFrancisco.CBSLocal.com''. *Fuselier, Herman (2016).
Cluse: 'Creole is a lot more than people think'
, ''TheAdvertiser.com''.
Finding Agnes
, ''BlogSpot.com''. {{DEFAULTSORT:Creoles Of Color Creole peoples . .02 African-American cultural history African-American society Ethnic groups in Alabama Ethnic groups in Louisiana Ethnic groups in Mississippi Ethnic groups in the United States .01 Louisiana society Mulatto People of Louisiana (New France)