The Creoles of color are a multiracial ethnic group of Louisiana Creoles that developed in the former French and Spanish colonies of

Louisiana Louisiana ( ; ; ) is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It borders Texas to the west, Arkansas to the north, and Mississippi to the east. Of the 50 U.S. states, it ranks 31st in area and 25 ...

(especially in

New Orleans New Orleans (commonly known as NOLA or The Big Easy among other nicknames) is a Consolidated city-county, consolidated city-parish located along the Mississippi River in the U.S. state of Louisiana. With a population of 383,997 at the 2020 ...

Mississippi Mississippi ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Alabama to the east, the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Louisiana to the s ...

, Alabama, and Northwestern Florida, in what is now the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

. French colonists in Louisiana first used the term " Creole" to refer to people born in the colony, rather than in Europe, thus drawing a distinction between Old-World Europeans and Africans from their descendants born in the New World.Kathe Managan
The Term "Creole" in Louisiana : An Introduction
, lameca.org. Retrieved December 5, 2013 Today, many Creoles of color have assimilated into (and contributed to) Black American culture, while some retain their distinct identity as a subset within the broader

African American African Americans, also known as Black Americans and formerly also called Afro-Americans, are an Race and ethnicity in the United States, American racial and ethnic group that consists of Americans who have total or partial ancestry from an ...

ethnic group. New Orleans Creoles of color have been named as a "vital source of U.S. national-indigenous culture." Creoles of color helped produce the historic cultural pattern of unique literature, art, music, architecture, and cuisine that is seen in New Orleans. The first black poetry works in the United States, such as ''Les Cenelles'', were created by New Orleans Creoles of color. The centuries-old '' New Orleans Tribune'' was owned and operated by Creoles of color. After the

American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...

, and Reconstruction, the city's black elite fought against informal segregation practices and

Jim Crow The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws introduced in the Southern United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that enforced racial segregation, " Jim Crow" being a pejorative term for an African American. The last of the ...

laws. With '' Plessy v. Ferguson'' and the beginning of legal segregation in 1896, Creoles of color became disenfranchised in Louisiana and other southern states. Some moved to other states, sometimes passing into white groups as ''passé blanc'', or integrating into Black groups. Creole of color artists, such as

Sidney Bechet Sidney Joseph Bechet ( ; May 14, 1897 – May 14, 1959) was an American jazz saxophonist, clarinetist, and composer. He was one of the first important Solo (music), soloists in jazz, and first recorded several months before trumpeter Louis Ar ...

and

Jelly Roll Morton Ferdinand Joseph LaMothe ( Lemott, later Morton; c. September 20, 1890 – July 10, 1941), known professionally as Jelly Roll Morton, was an American blues and jazz pianist, bandleader, and composer of Louisiana Creole descent. Morton was jazz ...

, helped spread

Jazz Jazz is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its roots are in blues, ragtime, European harmony, African rhythmic rituals, spirituals, h ...

; and Allen Toussaint, the "beloved Creole gentleman", contributed to rhythm and blues. Creoles of color who moved to other states founded diaspora communities, which were called "Little New Orleans", such as Little New Orleans, in Los Angeles and Little New Orleans, in Galveston.

Historical context

''Créole'' is derived from Latin and means to "create", and was first used in the "New World" by the Portuguese to describe local goods and products. The Spanish later used the term during colonial occupation to mean any native inhabitant of the New World. French colonists used the term ''Créole'' to distinguish themselves from foreign-born settlers, and later as distinct from Anglo-American settlers. ''Créole'' referred to people born in Louisiana whose ancestors came from other places. Colonial documents show that the term ''Créole'' was used variously at different times to refer to

white people White is a Race (human categorization), racial classification of people generally used for those of predominantly Ethnic groups in Europe, European ancestry. It is also a Human skin color, skin color specifier, although the definition can var ...

mixed-race The term multiracial people refers to people who are mixed with two or more races and the term multi-ethnic people refers to people who are of more than one ethnicities. A variety of terms have been used both historically and presently for mul ...

people, and

black people Black is a racial classification of people, usually a political and skin color-based category for specific populations with a mid- to dark brown complexion. Not all people considered "black" have dark skin and often additional phenotypical ...

, both free-born and enslaved. The addition of ''"-of color"'' was historically necessary when referring to Creoles of African and mixed ancestry, as the term "Creole" (''Créole'') did not convey any racial connotation until after the colonial period. During French colonization, social order was divided into three distinct categories: Creole aristocrats (''grands habitants''); a prosperous, educated group of multi-racial Creoles of European, African and Native American descent (''

bourgeoisie The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and aristocracy. They are traditionally contrasted wi ...

''); and the far larger class of African slaves and Creole peasants (''petits habitants''). French Law regulated interracial conduct within the colony. An example of such laws are the Louisiana

Code Noir The (, ''Black code'') was a decree passed by King Louis XIV, Louis XIV of France in 1685 defining the conditions of Slavery in France, slavery in the French colonial empire and served as the code for slavery conduct in the French colonies ...

. Though interracial relations were legally forbidden, or restricted, they were not uncommon. For a time, there were customs regulating relationships between white men and young women of African or mixed ancestry, whose mothers would negotiate the terms. These often included freedom for an enslaved woman and any children of the union, property settlement, and education.

Mixed-race The term multiracial people refers to people who are mixed with two or more races and the term multi-ethnic people refers to people who are of more than one ethnicities. A variety of terms have been used both historically and presently for mul ...

Creoles of color became identified as a distinct ethnic group, '' Gens de couleur libres'' ( free persons of color), and were granted their free-person status by the Louisiana Supreme Court in 1810. Social markers of creole identity have included being of Catholic faith, being a speaker of French and/or another French-derived language, having a strong

work ethic Work ethic is a belief that work and diligence have a moral benefit and an inherent ability, virtue or value to strengthen character and individual abilities. Desire or determination to work serves as the foundation for values centered on the i ...

, and being a fan of literature. Many may acquire

Louisiana French Louisiana French (Louisiana French: ''français louisianais''; ) includes the dialects and varieties of the French language spoken traditionally by French Louisianians in colonial Lower Louisiana. As of today Louisiana French is primarily use ...

Louisiana Creole Louisiana Creole is a French-based creole language spoken by fewer than 10,000 people, mostly in the U.S. state of Louisiana. Also known as Kouri-Vini, it is spoken today by people who may racially identify as white, black, mixed, and Native ...

from familial exposure, but learn Standard French in school, particularly in Louisiana. There has been a revival of French after its systematic suppression for a period by Anglo-Americans. The approach to revitalization is somewhat controversial as many

French Louisianians The French Louisianians (), also known as Louisiana French, are French people native to the U.S., states that were established out of French Louisiana. They are commonly referred to as French Creole peoples, Creoles ().Bernard, Shane K"Creoles", ...

argue the prioritization of Standard French education deprioritizes Louisianisms. For many, being a descendant of the '' Gens de couleur libres'' is an identity marker specific to Creoles of color. Many Creoles of color were free-born, and their descendants often enjoyed many of the same privileges that whites did, including (but not limited to) property ownership, formal education, and service in the militia. During the

antebellum Antebellum, Latin for "before war", may refer to: United States history * Antebellum South, the pre-American Civil War period in the Southern US ** Antebellum Georgia ** Antebellum South Carolina ** Antebellum Virginia * Antebellum architectu ...

period, their society was structured along class lines, and they tended to marry within their group. While it was not illegal, it was a social taboo for Creoles of color to marry slaves and it was a rare occurrence. Some of the wealthier and prosperous Creoles of color owned slaves themselves. Many did so to free and/or reunite with once-separated family members. Other Creoles of color, such as Thomy Lafon, used their social position to support the abolitionist cause. Wealthy planter Francis E. Dumas, another Creole of color, emancipated all of his slaves in 1863. He organized them into a company in the Second Regiment of the Louisiana Native Guards, in which he served as an officer.

Migration

First Wave

The first wave of creole migration out of Louisiana occurred between 1840 and 1890 with the majority of migrants fleeing to ethnic-dominant outskirts of larger U.S. cities and abroad where race was more fluid.

Second Wave

The reclassification of Creoles of color as black prompted the second migratory wave of Creoles of color between 1920 and 1940.

Military

Creoles of color had been members of the militia for decades under both French and Spanish control of the colony of

. For example, around 80 free Creoles of color were recruited into the militia that participated in the Battle of Baton Rouge in 1779. After the United States made the

Louisiana Purchase The Louisiana Purchase () was the acquisition of the Louisiana (New France), territory of Louisiana by the United States from the French First Republic in 1803. This consisted of most of the land in the Mississippi River#Watershed, Mississipp ...

in 1803 and acquired the large territory west of the Mississippi, the Creoles of color in New Orleans volunteered their services and pledged their loyalty to their new country. They also took an oath of loyalty to William C. C. Claiborne, the Louisiana Territorial Governor appointed by President

Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (, 1743July 4, 1826) was an American Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the United States Declaration of Indepe ...

. Months after the colony became part of the United States, Claiborne's administration was faced with a dilemma previously unknown in the U.S.; integration in the military by incorporating entire units of previously established "colored" militia. In a February 20, 1804, letter, Secretary of War

Henry Dearborn Henry Dearborn (February 23, 1751 – June 6, 1829) was an American military officer and politician. In the Revolutionary War, he served under Benedict Arnold in his expedition to Quebec, of which his journal provides an important record ...

wrote to Claiborne saying, "…it would be prudent not to increase the Corps, but to diminish, if it could be done without giving offense…" A decade later, the militia of color that remained volunteered to take up arms when the British began landing troops on American soil outside of New Orleans in December 1814. This was the commencement of the

Battle of New Orleans The Battle of New Orleans was fought on January 8, 1815, between the British Army under Major General Sir Edward Pakenham and the United States Army under Brevet Major General Andrew Jackson, roughly 5 miles (8 km) southeast of the Frenc ...

A notable Creole family was that of Andrea Dimitry. Dimitry was a Greek immigrant who married Marianne Céleste Dragon, a woman of African and Greek ancestry, around 1799. Their son, Creole author and educator Alexander Dimitry, was the first person of color to represent the United States as Ambassador to

Costa Rica Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica, is a country in Central America. It borders Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the northeast, Panama to the southeast, and the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, as well as Maritime bo ...

and

Nicaragua Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is the geographically largest Sovereign state, country in Central America, comprising . With a population of 7,142,529 as of 2024, it is the third-most populous country in Central America aft ...

. He was also the first superintendent of schools in Louisiana. Andrea Dimitry's children were upper-class elite Creole. They were mostly educated at

Georgetown University Georgetown University is a private university, private Jesuit research university in Washington, D.C., United States. Founded by Bishop John Carroll (archbishop of Baltimore), John Carroll in 1789, it is the oldest Catholic higher education, Ca ...

. One of his daughters married into the English royal

House of Stuart The House of Stuart, originally spelled Stewart, also known as the Stuart dynasty, was a dynasty, royal house of Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland, Kingdom of England, England, Kingdom of Ireland, Ireland and later Kingdom of Great Britain, Great ...

. Some Creoles served as prominent members of the Confederate Government during the American Civil War."Louise Pecquet du Bellet"
''Some Prominent Virginia Families Vol. 4'' Lynchburg, VA: J.P. Bell Company Inc. 1907: p. 188

Activism

With the advantage of having been better educated than the new

freedmen A freedman or freedwoman is a person who has been released from slavery, usually by legal means. Historically, slaves were freed by manumission (granted freedom by their owners), emancipation (granted freedom as part of a larger group), or self- ...

, many Creoles of color were active in the struggle for

civil rights Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' political freedom, freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure one's entitlement to participate in the civil and ...

and served in political office during Reconstruction, helping to bring freedmen into the political system. Nicholas Augustin Metoyer

During late

Reconstruction Reconstruction may refer to: Politics, history, and sociology *Reconstruction (law), the transfer of a company's (or several companies') business to a new company *''Perestroika'' (Russian for "reconstruction"), a late 20th century Soviet Union ...

, white Democrats regained political control of state legislatures across the former Confederate states by intimidation of blacks and other Republicans at the polls. Through the late nineteenth century, they worked to impose white supremacy under

Jim Crow laws The Jim Crow laws were U.S. state, state and local laws introduced in the Southern United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that enforced Racial segregation in the United States, racial segregation, "Jim Crow (character), Ji ...

and customs. They disfranchised the majority of blacks, especially by creating barriers to voter registration through devices such as poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clauses, etc., stripping African Americans, including Creoles of color, of political power. Creoles of color were among the African Americans who were limited when the

U.S. Supreme Court The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) is the highest court in the federal judiciary of the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all U.S. federal court cases, and over state court cases that turn on question ...

ruled in the case of '' Plessy v. Ferguson'' in 1896, deciding that "separate but equal" accommodations were constitutional. It permitted states to impose Jim Crow rules on federal railways and later interstate buses. On June 14, 2013, Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal signed into law Act 276, creating the "prestige" license plate stating "I'm Creole", in honor of the Creoles' contributions, culture, and heritage.

Education

It was common for wealthy francophone gens de couleur to study in France, with some remaining there for the rest of their lives. Creoles of color were often homeschooled or enrolled in private schools. These private schools were often financed and staffed by affluent Creoles of color. For example, '' L'Institute Catholique'' was financed by Madame Marie Couvent with writers Armand Lanusse and Joanni Questy serving as educators. In 1850 it was determined that 80% of all gens de couleur libres were literate; a figure significantly higher than the white population of Louisiana at the time.

Contribution to the arts

Literature

During the antebellum period, well-educated francophone gens de couleur libres contributed extensively to literary collections, such as ''Les Cenelles.'' A significant portion of these works were dedicated to describing the conditions of their enslaved compatriots. One example of such texts is the short story ''"Le Mulatre (The Mulatto)"'' by Victor Séjour, a Creole of color who lived and worked in Paris for most of his adult life. Other themes approached aspects of love, and religion, and many texts were likened to French romanticism. In daily newspapers locally and abroad, pieces written by Creoles of color were prominent. Even during the ban on racial commentary during the antebellum period, pieces written by these creoles reformulated existing French themes to subtly critique race relations in Louisiana. They still gained popularity among all readers.

Music

Some Creoles of color trained as classical musicians in 19th-century Louisiana. These musicians would often study with those associated with the French Opera House; some traveled to

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...

to complete their studies. Creole composers of that time are discussed in '' Music and Some Highly Musical People'' by James Monroe Trotter, and ''Nos Hommes et Notre Histoire'' by Rodolphe Lucien Desdunes.

Notable classical Creole musicians

*Basile Barès * Edmond Dédé *Laurent Dubuclet * * Charles Lucien Lambert * Sidney Lambert * Victor-Eugene McCarty *Samuel Snaër

Jazz musicians

Creoles of color from the New Orleans area were active in defining the earliest days of jazz.Scott DeVeaux, Gary Giddins
Jazz
wwnorton.com, Accessed November 22, 2013 Some of the most notable names: * Vernel Fournier * George Baquet * Paul Barbarin * Louis Barbarin *

Danny Barker Daniel Moses Barker (January 13, 1909 – March 13, 1994) was an American jazz musician, vocalist, and author from New Orleans. He was a rhythm guitarist for Cab Calloway, Lucky Millinder and Benny Carter during the 1930s. One of Barker's earli ...

* Emile Barnes * Paul Barnes *

Barney Bigard Albany Leon "Barney" Bigard (March 3, 1906 – June 27, 1980) was an American jazz clarinetist known for his 15-year tenure with Duke Ellington. He also played tenor saxophone. Biography Bigard was born in New Orleans to Creoles of color, Cr ...

* Louis Cottrell, Sr. * Louis Cottrell, Jr. * Joe Darensbourg * Louis Nelson Delisle * Cie Frazier * Illinois Jacquet * Freddie Keppard * Lawrence Marrero *

(Ferdinand J. LaMothe) * Albert Nicholas *

Kid Ory Edward "Kid" Ory (December 25, 1886 – January 23, 1973) was an American jazz composer, Trombone, trombonist and bandleader. One of the early users of the glissando technique, he helped establish it as a central element of Music of New Orle ...

* Manuel Perez * Jimmy Palao * Alcide Pavageau *

Alphonse Picou Alphonse Floristan Picou (October 19, 1878 – February 4, 1961) was an important very early American jazz clarinetist, who also wrote and arranged music. He was born and died in New Orleans, Louisiana. Early life and education Alphonse Picou w ...

* De De Pierce * Armand J. Piron * John Robichaux * Omer Simeon * Lorenzo Tio * Eddie Bo

References

External links

*Henry, LaFleur, and Simien (July 2015).
In their words: We are all Creole
, ''DailyWorld.com''. *''History Detectives'', S7E2:
'Creole Poems'
, ''PBS.org''.
C.R.E.O.L.E. Inc.
("An organization dedicated to preserving the Creole Heritage.") *
ZydecoNation.org
' (documentary) *''Nightline'' (December ):
Test Suggests 'Black' Man Is Really Not
, ''ABCNews.Go.com''. *Le Melle, Stacy Parker (2013).

, ''HuffingtonPost.com''. *Duggar, Nikki (2009). " ttp://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/945 I Am What I Say I Am: Racial and Cultural Identity among Creoles of Color in New Orleans, ''ScholarWorks.UNO.edu''.
PDF
*Landry, Christophe (2015).
A Creole Melting Pot: the Politics of Language, Race, and Identity in southwest Louisiana, 1918-45
, ''Academia.edu''. *Landry, Christophe (2016).
Beyoncé and Solange Knowles breaking boundaries
, ''MyLHCV.com''. *Rosenberg, Jeremy (2012).

, ''KCET.org''. *Tervalon, Jervey (2006).
The Creole Connection
, ''LAWeekly.com''. *Flaccus, Gillian (2005).

, ''Legacy.SanDiegoUnionTribune.com''. *Goodrich, Juliette (2013).
Bay Area Grammy Nominee Represents Local Creole Community
, ''SanFrancisco.CBSLocal.com''. *Fuselier, Herman (2016).
Cluse: 'Creole is a lot more than people think'
, ''TheAdvertiser.com''.
Finding Agnes
, ''BlogSpot.com''. {{DEFAULTSORT:Creoles Of Color Creole peoples . .02 African-American cultural history African-American society Ethnic groups in Alabama Ethnic groups in Louisiana Ethnic groups in Mississippi Ethnic groups in the United States .01 Louisiana society Mulatto People of Louisiana (New France) Sub-ethnic groups