The Continental Army was the army of the
United Colonies representing the
Thirteen Colonies
The Thirteen Colonies were the British colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America which broke away from the British Crown in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), and joined to form the United States of America.
The Thirteen C ...
and later the
United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
during the
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was the armed conflict that comprised the final eight years of the broader American Revolution, in which Am ...
. It was formed on June 14, 1775, by a resolution passed by the
Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress (1775–1781) was the meetings of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that united in support of the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War, which established American independence ...
, meeting in
Philadelphia
Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
after the war's outbreak at the
Battles of Lexington and Concord
The Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775 were the first major military actions of the American Revolutionary War between the Kingdom of Great Britain and Patriot (American Revolution), Patriot militias from America's Thirteen Co ...
on April 19, 1775. Therefore, June 14th is celebrated as the
U.S. Army Birthday.
The Continental Army was created to coordinate military efforts of the colonies in the war against the
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies.
* British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
, who sought to maintain control over the American colonies. General
George Washington
George Washington (, 1799) was a Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. As commander of the Continental Army, Washington led Patriot (American Revoluti ...
was appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and maintained this position throughout the war.
The Continental Army was supplemented by local
militias and volunteer troops that were either loyal to individual states or otherwise independent. Most of the Continental Army was disbanded in 1783 after the
Treaty of Paris formally ended the war, except for two detachments to guard Fort Pitt and
West Point
The United States Military Academy (USMA), commonly known as West Point, is a United States service academies, United States service academy in West Point, New York that educates cadets for service as Officer_(armed_forces)#United_States, comm ...
.
Origins
The Continental Army consisted of soldiers from all the
Thirteen Colonies
The Thirteen Colonies were the British colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America which broke away from the British Crown in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), and joined to form the United States of America.
The Thirteen C ...
and, after 1776, from all 13 states. The
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was the armed conflict that comprised the final eight years of the broader American Revolution, in which Am ...
began at the
Battles of Lexington and Concord
The Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775 were the first major military actions of the American Revolutionary War between the Kingdom of Great Britain and Patriot (American Revolution), Patriot militias from America's Thirteen Co ...
, on April 19, 1775, at a time when the colonial revolutionaries had no standing army. Previously, each colony had relied on
Patriot militias, which were made up of part-time citizen-soldiers for local defense, or the raising of temporary
provincial troops, as was done during the
French and Indian War
The French and Indian War, 1754 to 1763, was a colonial conflict in North America between Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain and Kingdom of France, France, along with their respective Native Americans in the United States, Native American ...
between 1754 and 1763. As tensions with
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-west coast of continental Europe, consisting of the countries England, Scotland, and Wales. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the List of European ...
increased in the years leading to the war, colonists began to reform their militias in preparation for the perceived potential conflict. Training of militiamen increased after the passage of the
Intolerable Acts
The Intolerable Acts, sometimes referred to as the Insufferable Acts or Coercive Acts, were a series of five punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 after the Boston Tea Party. The laws aimed to punish Massachusetts colonists fo ...
in 1774. Colonists such as
Richard Henry Lee
Richard Henry Lee (January 20, 1732June 19, 1794) was an American statesman and Founding Father from Virginia, best known for the June 1776 Lee Resolution, the motion in the Second Continental Congress calling for the colonies' independence fr ...
proposed forming a national militia force, but the
First Continental Congress
The First Continental Congress was a meeting of delegates of twelve of the Thirteen Colonies held from September 5 to October 26, 1774, at Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia at the beginning of the American Revolution. The meeting was organized b ...
rejected the idea. On April 23, 1775, the
Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the raising of a colonial army consisting of 26 company regiments. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut soon raised similar but smaller forces.
On June 14, 1775, the
Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress (1775–1781) was the meetings of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that united in support of the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War, which established American independence ...
, meeting in present-day
Independence Hall
Independence Hall is a historic civic building in Philadelphia, where both the United States Declaration of Independence, Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States were debated and adopted by the Founding Fathers of ...
in
Philadelphia
Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
, voted to establish the Continental Army to provide for the common defense of the colonies, and incorporated patriot forces already in place outside
Boston
Boston is the capital and most populous city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city serves as the cultural and Financial centre, financial center of New England, a region of the Northeas ...
(22,000 troops) and
New York (5,000). It also raised the first ten companies of Continental Army troops on a one-year enlistment, including riflemen from the
Province of Pennsylvania
The Province of Pennsylvania, also known as the Pennsylvania Colony, was a British North American colony founded by William Penn, who received the land through a grant from Charles II of England in 1681. The name Pennsylvania was derived from ...
,
Province of Maryland
The Province of Maryland was an Kingdom of England, English and later British colonization of the Americas, British colony in North America from 1634 until 1776, when the province was one of the Thirteen Colonies that joined in supporting the A ...
, and
Colony of Virginia
The Colony of Virginia was a British Empire, British colonial settlement in North America from 1606 to 1776.
The first effort to create an English settlement in the area was chartered in 1584 and established in 1585; the resulting Roanoke Colo ...
, which were used as
light infantry
Light infantry refers to certain types of lightly equipped infantry throughout history. They have a more mobile or fluid function than other types of infantry, such as heavy infantry or line infantry. Historically, light infantry often fought ...
. The Pennsylvania riflemen became the
1st Continental Regiment in January 1776. On June 15, 1775, Congress unanimously elected
George Washington
George Washington (, 1799) was a Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. As commander of the Continental Army, Washington led Patriot (American Revoluti ...
commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. Washington accepted, and departed immediately for Boston, where he led the successful
Siege of Boston
The siege of Boston (April 19, 1775 – March 17, 1776) was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War. In the siege, Patriot (American Revolution), American patriot militia led by newly-installed Continental Army commander George Wash ...
.
Washington served as the Continental Army's commander-in-chief throughout the Revolutionary War without any compensation except for reimbursement of expenses.
As the Continental Congress increasingly adopted the responsibilities and posture of a legislature for a sovereign state, the role of the Continental Army became the subject of considerable debate. Some Americans had a general aversion to maintaining a standing army, but the requirements of the Revolutionary War against the
British
British may refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies.
* British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
was seen as requiring the discipline and organization of an organized central military. As a result, the Continental Army evolved throughout the war, routinely reorganizing its units and ultimately seeking and obtaining support from
France
France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
, which sought to counter British influence in
North America
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere, Northern and Western Hemisphere, Western hemispheres. North America is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South Ameri ...
.
Establishments
The Continental Army's forces included several successive armies or establishments:
* The Continental Army of 1775, comprising the initial
New England
New England is a region consisting of six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York (state), New York to the west and by the ...
Army, was organized by Washington into three divisions, six brigades, and 38 regiments. Major General
Philip Schuyler
Philip John Schuyler (; November 20, 1733 - November 18, 1804) was an American general in the American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War and a United States Senate, United States Senator from New York (state), New York. He is usually known as ...
's ten regiments in New York were sent to invade
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...
.
[Wehmann 1989, pp. 191.]
* The Continental Army of 1776, was reorganized after the initial enlistment period of the soldiers in the 1775 army had expired. Washington had submitted recommendations to the Continental Congress almost immediately after he had accepted the position of Commander-in-Chief, but the Congress took time to consider and implement these. Despite attempts to broaden the recruiting base beyond New England, the 1776 army remained skewed toward the Northeast both in terms of its composition and of its geographical focus. This army consisted of 36 regiments, most standardized to a single battalion of 768 men strong and formed into eight companies, with a
rank-and-file strength of 640.
[
* The Continental Army of 1777–1780 evolved out of several critical reforms and political decisions that came about when it became apparent that the British were sending substantial forces to put an end to the ]American Revolution
The American Revolution (1765–1783) was a colonial rebellion and war of independence in which the Thirteen Colonies broke from British America, British rule to form the United States of America. The revolution culminated in the American ...
. The Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress (1775–1781) was the meetings of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that united in support of the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War, which established American independence ...
passed the "Eighty-eight Battalion Resolve", ordering each state to contribute one-battalion regiments in proportion to their population, and Washington subsequently received authority to raise an additional 16 battalions. Enlistment terms extended to three years or to "the length of the war" to avoid the year-end crises that depleted forces, including the notable near-collapse of the army at the end of 1776, which could have ended the war in a Continental, or American, loss by forfeit.[
* The Continental Army of 1781–1782 saw the greatest crisis on the American side in the war. Congress was bankrupt, making it very difficult to replenish the soldiers whose three-year terms had expired. Popular support for the war reached an all-time low, and Washington had to put down mutinies both in the Pennsylvania Line and in the New Jersey Line. Congress voted to cut funding for the Army, but Washington managed nevertheless to secure important strategic victories.][
* The Continental Army of 1783–1784 was succeeded by the ]United States Army
The United States Army (USA) is the primary Land warfare, land service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is designated as the Army of the United States in the United States Constitution.Article II, section 2, clause 1 of th ...
, which exists to the present day. As peace was restored with the British, most of the regiments were disbanded in an orderly fashion, though several had already been diminished.[
]
Organization
Governing bodies
Military affairs were at first managed by the Continental Congress
The Continental Congress was a series of legislature, legislative bodies, with some executive function, for the Thirteen Colonies of British America, Great Britain in North America, and the newly declared United States before, during, and after ...
in plenary session
A plenary session or plenum is a session of a conference or deliberative assembly in which all parties or members are present. Such a session may include a broad range of content, from keynotes to panel discussions, and is not necessarily r ...
, although specific matters were prepared by a number of ad hoc committees. In June 1776 a five-member standing committee
A committee or commission is a body of one or more persons subordinate to a deliberative assembly or other form of organization. A committee may not itself be considered to be a form of assembly or a decision-making body. Usually, an assembly o ...
, the Board of War and Ordnance, was established in order to replace the ad hoc committees. The five members who formed the Board fully participated in the plenary activities of Congress as well as in other committees and were unable to fully engage in the administrative leadership of the Continental Army. A new Board of War was therefore formed in October 1777, of three commissioners not member of Congress. Two more commissioners, not members of Congress, were shortly thereafter added, but in October 1778, the membership was set to three commissioners not members of Congress and two commissioners members of Congress. In early 1780, the Quartermaster General, the Commissary General of Purchase, and the Commissary General of Issue were put under the direction of the Board. The Office of the Secretary at War was created in February 1781, although the Office did not start its work until Benjamin Lincoln
Benjamin Lincoln (January 24, 1733 ( O.S. January 13, 1733) – May 9, 1810) was an American army officer. He served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Lincoln was involved in three major surrender ...
assumed the office in October 1781.
Commander-in-chief
On June 15, 1775, delegates to the Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress (1775–1781) was the meetings of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that united in support of the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War, which established American independence ...
, convening in present-day Independence Hall
Independence Hall is a historic civic building in Philadelphia, where both the United States Declaration of Independence, Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States were debated and adopted by the Founding Fathers of ...
in Philadelphia
Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
, unanimously elected George Washington
George Washington (, 1799) was a Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. As commander of the Continental Army, Washington led Patriot (American Revoluti ...
as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. Washington accepted the position, and served throughout the American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was the armed conflict that comprised the final eight years of the broader American Revolution, in which Am ...
without any compensation except for reimbursement of expenses. Washington, as commander-in-chief, was supported by a chief administrative officer, the Adjutant General. Horatio Gates held the position (1775–1776), Joseph Reed (1776–1777), George Weedon and Isaac Budd Dunn (1777), Morgan Connor 1777, Timothy Pickering (1777–1778), Alexander Scammell (1778–1781), and Edward Hand (1781–1783). An Inspector General assisted the Commander-in-Chief through periodically inspecting and reporting on the condition of troops. The first incumbent was Thomas Conway
Thomas Conway (February 27, 1735 – March 1795) was an Irish-born army officer and colonial administrator who served as the French India#Governors, governor of French India from 1787 to 1789. Over the course of his military career, he served in ...
(1777–1778), followed by Baron von Steuben 1778–1784, under whom the position became that of a de facto chief of staff. The Judge Advocate General assisted the commander-in-chief with the administration of military justice
Military justice (or military law) is the body of laws and procedures governing members of the armed forces. Many nation-states have separate and distinct bodies of law that govern the conduct of members of their armed forces. Some states us ...
, but he did not, as his modern counterpart, give legal advise. William Tudor was the first appointee. He was followed by John Laurance in 1777 and Thomas Edwards in 1781[ The Mustermaster General kept track by name of every officer and man serving in the army. The first mustermaster was ]Stephen Moylan
Stephen Moylan (1737 – April 11, 1811) was an Irish-American patriot leader during the American Revolutionary War. He had several positions in the Continental Army, including Muster-Master General, Secretary and Aide to General George Washin ...
. He was followed by Gunning Bedford Jr. 1776–1777 and Joseph Ward.[Wright 1983, p. 432.]
Territorial organization
Units of the Continental Army were assigned to any one of the territorial departments to decentralize command and administration. In general there were seven territorial departments,[Wright, ''Continental Army'', map, 83.] although their boundaries were subject to change and they were not all in existence throughout the war. The Department of New York (later the Northern Department) was created when Congress made Philip Schuyler
Philip John Schuyler (; November 20, 1733 - November 18, 1804) was an American general in the American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War and a United States Senate, United States Senator from New York (state), New York. He is usually known as ...
its commander on June 15, 1775. The Southern and Middle Departments were added in February 1776. Several others were added the same year. A major general appointed by Congress commanded each department. Under his command came all Continental Army units within the territorial limits of the department, as well as state troops and militia – if released by the governor of the state.
Tactical organization
All troops under the department commander were designated as an army
An army, ground force or land force is an armed force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the land-based military branch, service branch or armed service of a nation or country. It may also include aviation assets by ...
; hence troops in the Northern Department were called the ''Northern Army'', in the Southern Department the ''Southern Army'', etc. The department commander could be field commander or he could appoint another officer to command the troops in the field. Depending on the size of the army, it could be divided into ''wings'' or divisions (of typically three brigade
A brigade is a major tactical military unit, military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Two or more brigades may constitute ...
s) that were temporary organizations, and brigades (of two to five regiment
A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, military service, service, or administrative corps, specialisation.
In Middle Ages, Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of l ...
s) that in effect were permanent organizations and the basic tactical unit of the Continental Army.
An infantry
Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...
regiment in the Continental Army typically consisted of 8 to 10 companies, each commanded by a captain. Field officers usually included a colonel, a lieutenant colonel, and a major. A regimental staff was made up of an adjutant
Adjutant is a military appointment given to an Officer (armed forces), officer who assists the commanding officer with unit administration, mostly the management of “human resources” in an army unit. The term is used in French-speaking armed ...
, quartermaster
Quartermaster is a military term, the meaning of which depends on the country and service. In land army, armies, a quartermaster is an officer who supervises military logistics, logistics and requisitions, manages stores or barracks, and distri ...
, surgeon, surgeon's mate, paymaster, and chaplain
A chaplain is, traditionally, a cleric (such as a minister, priest, pastor, rabbi, purohit, or imam), or a lay representative of a religious tradition, attached to a secular institution (such as a hospital, prison, military unit, intellige ...
. Infantry regiments were often called simply regiments or battalions.[Wehmann 1989, pp. 191–192.] The regiment's fighting strength consisted of a single battalion
A battalion is a military unit, typically consisting of up to one thousand soldiers. A battalion is commanded by a lieutenant colonel and subdivided into several Company (military unit), companies, each typically commanded by a Major (rank), ...
of 728 officers and enlisted men at full strength. Cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from ''cheval'' meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mob ...
and artillery
Artillery consists of ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and l ...
regiments were organized in a similar manner. A company of cavalry was frequently called a troop. An artillery company contained specialized soldiers, such as bombardiers, gunners, and matrosses.[ A continental cavalry regiment had a nominal strength of 280 officers and men, but the actual strength was usually less than 150 men and even fewer horses. Artificers were civilian or military mechanics and ]artisan
An artisan (from , ) is a skilled craft worker who makes or creates material objects partly or entirely by hand. These objects may be functional or strictly decorative, for example furniture, decorative art, sculpture, clothing, food ite ...
s employed by the army to provide services. They included blacksmith
A blacksmith is a metalsmith who creates objects primarily from wrought iron or steel, but sometimes from #Other metals, other metals, by forging the metal, using tools to hammer, bend, and cut (cf. tinsmith). Blacksmiths produce objects such ...
s, coopers, carpenter
Carpentry is a skilled trade and a craft in which the primary work performed is the cutting, shaping and installation of building materials during the construction of buildings, ships, timber bridges, concrete formwork, etc. Carpenter ...
s, harnessmakers, and wheelwright
A wheelwright is a Artisan, craftsman who builds or repairs wooden wheels. The word is the combination of "wheel" and the word "wright" (which comes from the Old English word "''wryhta''", meaning a worker - as also in shipbuilding, shipwright ...
s.[
]
Logistical organization
In June 1775, the Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress (1775–1781) was the meetings of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that united in support of the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War, which established American independence ...
created the position of Quartermaster General, after the British example. He was charged with opening and maintaining the lines of advance and retreat, laying out camps and assigning quarters. His responsibilities included furnishing the army with materiel and supplies, although the supply of arms, clothing, and provisions fell under other departments. The transportation of all supplies, even those provided by other departments, came under his ambit. The Quartermaster General served with the main army under General George Washington
George Washington (, 1799) was a Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. As commander of the Continental Army, Washington led Patriot (American Revoluti ...
, but was directly responsible to Congress. Deputy quartermasters were appointed by Congress to serve with separate armies, and functioned independently of the Quartermaster General. Thomas Mifflin
Thomas Mifflin (January 10, 1744January 20, 1800) was an American merchant, soldier, and politician from Pennsylvania, who is regarded as a Founding Father of the United States for his roles during and after the American Revolution. Mifflin sig ...
served as Quartermaster General (1775–1776 and 1776–1778), Stephen Moylan
Stephen Moylan (1737 – April 11, 1811) was an Irish-American patriot leader during the American Revolutionary War. He had several positions in the Continental Army, including Muster-Master General, Secretary and Aide to General George Washin ...
(1776), Nathanael Greene
Major general (United States), Major General Nathanael Greene (August 7, 1742 – June 19, 1786) was an American military officer and planter who served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War. He emerge ...
(1778–1780), and Timothy Pickering (from 1780).
Congress also created the position of Commissary General of Stores and Provisions directly responsible to Congress, with Joseph Trumbull as the first incumbent. In 1777, Congress divided the department into two, a Commissary General of Purchases, with four deputies, and a Commissary General of Issues, with three deputies. William Buchanan was head of the Purchase Department (1777–1778), Jeremiah Wadsworth (1778–1779), and Ephraim Blaine (1779–1781). In 1780, the department became subordinated to the Superintendent of Finance, although Blaine retained his position. Charles Stewart served as Commissary General of Issues (1777–1782).
The responsibility for procuring arms and ammunition at first rested with various committees of Congress. In 1775, a field organization, usually known as the Military Branch of the Commissariat of Military Stores, was made responsible for distribution and care of ordnance in the field. In 1777, Congress established a Commissary General of Military Stores. Known as the Civil Branch, this organization was responsible for handling arsenal
An arsenal is a place where arms and ammunition are made, maintained and repaired, stored, or issued, in any combination, whether privately or publicly owned. Arsenal and armoury (British English) or armory (American English) are mostly ...
s, laboratories
A laboratory (; ; colloquially lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which science, scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories are found in a variety of settings such as s ...
, and some procurement
Procurement is the process of locating and agreeing to terms and purchasing goods, services, or other works from an external source, often with the use of a tendering or competitive bidding process. The term may also refer to a contractual ...
under the general supervision of the Board of War. Later in the war, a Surveyor of Ordnance was made responsible for inspecting foundries, magazines
A magazine is a periodical literature, periodical publication, print or digital, produced on a regular schedule, that contains any of a variety of subject-oriented textual and visual content (media), content forms. Magazines are generally fin ...
, ordnance shops, and field ordnance. In July 1777, the Board of War was authorized to purchase artillery.
Congress created a hospital department in July 1775 as a part of the Continental Army's administrative structure. It came under the Director General of the Hospital Department, chosen by Congress but serving under the Commander-in-Chief, and was staffed by four surgeon
In medicine, a surgeon is a medical doctor who performs surgery. Even though there are different traditions in different times and places, a modern surgeon is a licensed physician and received the same medical training as physicians before spec ...
s, an apothecary
''Apothecary'' () is an Early Modern English, archaic English term for a medicine, medical professional who formulates and dispenses ''materia medica'' (medicine) to physicians, surgeons and patients. The modern terms ''pharmacist'' and, in Brit ...
, twenty surgeon's mates, a nurse
Nursing is a health care profession that "integrates the art and science of caring and focuses on the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and human functioning; prevention of illness and injury; facilitation of healing; and alle ...
for every ten patients, a matron to supervise the nurses, a clerk, and two storekeepers. The department was reorganized in 1777; deputy director generals were added to the administrative structure; commissaries of hospitals were established to provide food and forage; and apothecary generals were established to procure and distribute medicines. The first director general was Benjamin Church (1775), he was followed by John Morgan (1775–1777), William Shippen (1777–1781), and John Cochran (1781).[
Keeping the continentals clothed was a difficult task and to do this Washington appointed James Mease, a merchant from Philadelphia, as Clothier General. Mease worked closely with state-appointed agents to purchase clothing and things such as cow hides to make clothing and shoes for soldiers. Mease eventually resigned in 1777 and had compromised much of the organization of the Clothing Department. After this, on many accounts, the soldiers of the Continental Army were often poorly clothed, had few blankets, and often did not even have shoes. The problems with clothing and shoes for soldiers were often not the result of not having enough but of organization and lack of transportation. To reorganize, the Board of War was appointed to sort out the clothing supply chain. During this time they sought out the help of France, and for the remainder of the war clothing was coming from over-sea procurement.]
The disbursing of money to pay soldiers and suppliers were the function of the Paymaster-General. James Warren was the first incumbent of this office. His successor was William Palfrey in 1776, who was followed by John Pierce Jr. in 1781.[
]
Officers and men
The Continental Army lacked the discipline typically expected of an army. When they first assembled, the count of how many soldiers George Washington had was delayed a little over a week. Instead of obeying their commanders and officers without question, each unit was a community that had democratically chosen its leaders. The regiments came from different states and, because they were composed of volunteers, were uneven in numbers. While this could have been remedied by reassigning soldiers, many held a belief borne of American republicanism
Republicanism is a political ideology that encompasses a range of ideas from civic virtue, political participation, harms of corruption, positives of mixed constitution, rule of law, and others. Historically, it emphasizes the idea of self ...
- if separated from the officers they had chosen, soldiers did not believe they should have to serve. Relying on the willingness of his volunteer army to fight, George Washington had to sacrifice this logistical weakness in favor of compromise. 3
Soldiers in the Continental Army were volunteers; they agreed to serve in the army and standard enlistment periods lasted from one to three years. Early in the war, the enlistment periods were short, as the Continental Congress
The Continental Congress was a series of legislature, legislative bodies, with some executive function, for the Thirteen Colonies of British America, Great Britain in North America, and the newly declared United States before, during, and after ...
feared the possibility of the Continental Army evolving into a permanent army. The army never numbered more than 48,000 men overall and 13,000 troops in one area. The turnover proved a constant problem, particularly in the winter of 1776–1777, and longer enlistments were approved. As the new country (not yet fully independent) had no money, the government agreed to give grants to the soldiers which they could exchange for money. In 1781 and 1782, Patriot officials and officers in the Southern Colonies repeatedly implemented policies that offered slaves as rewards for recruiters who managed to enlist a certain number of volunteers in the Continental Army; in January 1781, Virginia's General Assembly passed a measure which announced that voluntary enlistees in the Virginia Line's regiments would be given a "healthy sound negro" as a reward.
The officers of both the Continental Army and the state militias were typically yeoman farmers with a sense of honor and status and an ideological commitment to oppose the policies of the British Crown
The Crown is a political concept used in Commonwealth realms. Depending on the context used, it generally refers to the entirety of the State (polity), state (or in federal realms, the relevant level of government in that state), the executive ...
. Meanwhile, the enlisted men largely came from the working class or minority groups, namely English, Ulster Protestant, or African descent. Up to a fourth of Washington's army were of Scots-Irish (English and Scottish descent) Ulster origin, many being recent arrivals and in need of work.[Neimeyer, ''America Goes to War,'' pp. 36–38.] They were motivated to volunteer by specific contracts that promised bounty money; regular pay at good wages; food, clothing, and medical care; companionship; and the promise of land ownership after the war. By 1780, more than 30,000 men served in the Continental army, but the lack of resources and proper training resulted in the deaths of over 13,000 soldiers. By 1781–1782, threats of mutiny and actual mutinies were becoming serious.
The Continental Army was racially integrated, a condition the United States Army
The United States Army (USA) is the primary Land warfare, land service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is designated as the Army of the United States in the United States Constitution.Article II, section 2, clause 1 of th ...
would not see again until the late 1940s. During the Revolution, African American slaves were promised freedom in exchange for military service by both the Continental and British armies. Approximately 6,600 people of color (including African American, indigenous, and multiracial men) served with the colonial forces, and made up one-fifth of the Northern Continental Army.
In addition to the Continental Army regulars, state militia units were assigned for short-term service and fought in campaigns throughout the war. Sometimes the militia units operated independently of the Continental Army, but often local militias were called out to support and augment the Continental Army regulars during campaigns. The militia troops developed a reputation for being prone to premature retreats, a fact that General Daniel Morgan
Daniel Morgan (c. 1736 – July 6, 1802) was an American pioneer, soldier, and politician from Virginia. One of the most respected battlefield tacticians of the American Revolutionary War of 1775–1783, he later commanded troops during the sup ...
integrated into his strategy at the Battle of Cowpens
The Battle of Cowpens was a military engagement during the American Revolutionary War fought on January 17, 1781, near the town of Cowpens, South Carolina. American Patriot (American Revolution), Patriot forces, estimated at 2,000 militia and reg ...
and used to fool the British in 1781.
The financial responsibility for providing pay, food, shelter, clothing, arms, and other equipment to specific units was assigned to states as part of the establishment of these units. States differed in how well they lived up to these obligations. There were constant funding issues and morale problems as the war continued. This led to the army offering low pay, often rotten food, hard work, cold, heat, poor clothing and shelter, harsh discipline, and a high chance of becoming a casualty.
Operations
During the siege of Boston
The siege of Boston (April 19, 1775 – March 17, 1776) was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War. In the siege, Patriot (American Revolution), American patriot militia led by newly-installed Continental Army commander George Wash ...
in June 1775, the Continental Army in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Cambridge ( ) is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. It is a suburb in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, located directly across the Charles River from Boston. The city's population as of the 2020 United States census, ...
is estimated to have numbered between 14,000 and 16,000 men from New England
New England is a region consisting of six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York (state), New York to the west and by the ...
, though the actual number may have been as low as 11,000 because of desertions. Until George Washington
George Washington (, 1799) was a Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. As commander of the Continental Army, Washington led Patriot (American Revoluti ...
's arrival in Cambridge, the Continental Army was commanded by Artemas Ward. The British Army
The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...
in Boston
Boston is the capital and most populous city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city serves as the cultural and Financial centre, financial center of New England, a region of the Northeas ...
was increasing by fresh arrivals, then numbering about 10,000 men. The British controlled Boston and defended it with their fleet, but they were outnumbered and did not attempt to challenge the American control of New England. Washington selected young Henry Knox
Henry Knox (July 25, 1750 – October 25, 1806) was an American military officer, politician, bookseller, and a Founding Father of the United States. Knox, born in Boston, became a senior general of the Continental Army during the Revolutionar ...
, a self-educated strategist, to take charge of the artillery from an abandoned British fort in upstate New York, and dragged across the snow to and placed them in the hills surrounding Boston in March 1776. The British situation was untenable. They negotiated an uneventful abandonment of the city and relocated their forces to Halifax in Canada. Washington relocated his army to New York. For the next five years, the main bodies of the Continental and British armies campaigned against one another in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. These campaigns included the notable battles of Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine, Germantown, and Morristown, and others.
The army increased its effectiveness and success rate through a series of trials and errors, often at a great human cost. General Washington and other distinguished officers were instrumental leaders in preserving unity, learning and adapting, and ensuring discipline throughout the eight years of war. In the winter of 1777–1778, with the addition of Baron von Steuben, a Prussian expert, the training and discipline of the Continental Army was dramatically upgraded to modern European standards through the '' Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States''. This was during the infamous winter at Valley Forge
Valley Forge was the winter encampment of the Continental Army, under the command of George Washington, during the American Revolutionary War. The Valley Forge encampment lasted six months, from December 19, 1777, to June 19, 1778. It was the t ...
. Washington always viewed the Army as a temporary measure and strove to maintain civilian control of the military
Civil control of the military is a doctrine in military science, military and political science that places ultimate command responsibility, responsibility for a country's Grand strategy, strategic decision-making in the hands of the state's c ...
, as did the Continental Congress
The Continental Congress was a series of legislature, legislative bodies, with some executive function, for the Thirteen Colonies of British America, Great Britain in North America, and the newly declared United States before, during, and after ...
, though there were minor disagreements about how this was to be carried out.
Throughout its existence, the Army was troubled by poor logistics, inadequate training, short-term enlistments, interstate rivalries, and Congress's inability to compel the states to provide food, money, or supplies. In the beginning, soldiers enlisted for a year, largely motivated by patriotism; but as the war dragged on, bounties and other incentives became more commonplace. Major and minor mutinies—56 in all—diminished the reliability of two of the main units late in the war.
The French played a decisive role in 1781 as Washington's Army was augmented by a French expeditionary force under Lieutenant General Rochambeau and a squadron of the French navy under the Comte de Barras. By disguising his movements, Washington moved the combined forces south to Virginia
Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States between the East Coast of the United States ...
without the British commanders in New York realizing it. This resulted in the capture of the main British invasion force in the south at the Siege of Yorktown, which resulted in the American and their allied victory in the land war in North America and assured independence.
Major battles
* Siege of Boston
The siege of Boston (April 19, 1775 – March 17, 1776) was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War. In the siege, Patriot (American Revolution), American patriot militia led by newly-installed Continental Army commander George Wash ...
* Battle of Long Island
The Battle of Long Island, also known as the Battle of Brooklyn and the Battle of Brooklyn Heights, was an action of the American Revolutionary War fought on August 27, 1776, at and near the western edge of Long Island in present-day Brooklyn ...
* Battle of Harlem Heights
* Battle of Trenton
* Battle of the Assunpink Creek
The Battle of the Assunpink Creek, also known as the Second Battle of Trenton, was a battle between Thirteen Colonies, American and Kingdom of Great Britain, British troops that took place in and around Trenton, New Jersey, on January 2, 1 ...
* Battle of Princeton
* Battle of Brandywine
* Battle of Germantown
* Battles of Saratoga
* Battle of Monmouth
* Siege of Charleston
* Battle of Camden
* Battle of Cowpens
The Battle of Cowpens was a military engagement during the American Revolutionary War fought on January 17, 1781, near the town of Cowpens, South Carolina. American Patriot (American Revolution), Patriot forces, estimated at 2,000 militia and reg ...
* Battle of Guilford Court House
* Siege of Yorktown
Winter cantonments
* Cambridge, Massachusetts
Cambridge ( ) is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. It is a suburb in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, located directly across the Charles River from Boston. The city's population as of the 2020 United States census, ...
, 1775–1776
* Loantaka Valley, Morristown, New Jersey
Morristown () is a Town (New Jersey), town in and the county seat of Morris County, New Jersey, Morris County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. , January 1777 – May 1777.
* Valley Forge
Valley Forge was the winter encampment of the Continental Army, under the command of George Washington, during the American Revolutionary War. The Valley Forge encampment lasted six months, from December 19, 1777, to June 19, 1778. It was the t ...
, Pennsylvania, December 1777 – June 1778.
* Main Army at Middlebrook, New Jersey, December 1778 – June 1779.
** Main Army Artillery at Pluckemin, New Jersey, 1778–1789.
** Eastern Division at Redding Connecticut, 1778–1779.
* Jockey Hollow, Morristown, New Jersey
Morristown () is a Town (New Jersey), town in and the county seat of Morris County, New Jersey, Morris County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. , December 1779 – June 1780.
* West Point, New York
West Point is the oldest continuously occupied military post in the United States. Located on the Hudson River in New York (state), New York, General George Washington stationed his headquarters in West Point in the summer and fall of 1779 durin ...
, 1780–1781
** Pennsylvania Line at Jockey Hollow, Morristown, New Jersey
Morristown () is a Town (New Jersey), town in and the county seat of Morris County, New Jersey, Morris County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. , 1780–1781.[Elliot 2017, p. 135.]
* Newburgh, New York
Newburgh is a City (New York), city in Orange County, New York, United States. With a population of 28,856 as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is a principal city of the Kiryas Joel–Poughkeepsie–Newburgh metropolitan area. ...
, 1781–1782
** New Jersey Brigade at Bernardsville, New Jersey, 1781–1782.[
* New Windsor, New York, October 1782 – June 1783.
** Washington's Headquarters at ]Newburgh, New York
Newburgh is a City (New York), city in Orange County, New York, United States. With a population of 28,856 as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is a principal city of the Kiryas Joel–Poughkeepsie–Newburgh metropolitan area. ...
, 1782–1783.
Demobilization
A small residual force remained at West Point
The United States Military Academy (USMA), commonly known as West Point, is a United States service academies, United States service academy in West Point, New York that educates cadets for service as Officer_(armed_forces)#United_States, comm ...
and some frontier outposts until Congress created the United States Army
The United States Army (USA) is the primary Land warfare, land service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is designated as the Army of the United States in the United States Constitution.Article II, section 2, clause 1 of th ...
by their resolution of June 3, 1784. Although Congress declined on May 12 to make a decision on the peace establishment, it did address the need for some troops to remain on duty until the British evacuated New York City and several frontier posts. The delegates told Washington to use men enlisted for fixed terms as temporary garrisons. A detachment of those men from West Point reoccupied New York without incident on November 25. When Steuben's effort in July to negotiate a transfer of frontier forts with Major General Frederick Haldimand collapsed, however, the British maintained control over them, as they would into the 1790s. That failure and the realization that most of the remaining infantrymen's enlistments were due to expire by June 1784 led Washington to order Knox, his choice as the commander of the peacetime army, to discharge all but 500 infantry and 100 artillerymen before winter set in. The former regrouped as 1st American Regiment, under Colonel Henry Jackson of Massachusetts. The single artillery company, New Yorkers under Major John Doughty, came from remnants of the 2nd Continental Artillery Regiment.
Congress issued a proclamation on October 18, 1783, which approved Washington's reductions. On November 2, Washington, then at Rockingham near Rocky Hill, New Jersey, released his ''Farewell Orders issued to the Armies of the United States of America'' to the Philadelphia newspapers for nationwide distribution to the furloughed men. In the message, he thanked the officers and men for their assistance and reminded them that "the singular interpositions of Providence in our feeble condition were such, as could scarcely escape the attention of the most unobserving; while the unparalleled perseverance of the Armies of the United States, through almost every possible suffering and discouragement for the space of eight long years, was little short of a standing Miracle."
Washington believed that the blending of persons from every colony into "one patriotic band of Brothers" had been a major accomplishment, and he urged the veterans to continue this devotion in civilian life. Washington said farewell to his remaining officers on December 4 at Fraunces Tavern in New York City. On December 23 he appeared in Congress, then sitting at Annapolis, and returned his commission as commander-in-chief: "Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of Action; and bidding an Affectionate farewell to this August body under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my Commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life." Congress ended the War of American Independence on January 14, 1784, by ratifying the definitive peace treaty that had been signed in Paris on September 3.
Military ranks
Rank and pay
Monthly pay of the officers and soldiers of the continental line as established by the resolutions of Congress, fixing the arrangement of the Continental Army May 27, 1778, which rate of pay continued to the end of the war.[Franklin 1838, p. 9.]
Rank insignia
During the American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was the armed conflict that comprised the final eight years of the broader American Revolution, in which Am ...
, the Continental Army initially wore ribbon
A ribbon or riband is a thin band of material, typically cloth but also plastic or sometimes metal, used primarily as decorative binding and tying. Cloth ribbons are made of natural materials such as silk, cotton, and jute and of synthetic mate ...
s, cockade
A cockade is a knot of ribbons, or other circular- or oval-shaped symbol of distinctive colours which is usually worn on a hat or cap. The word cockade derives from the French ''cocarde'', from Old French ''coquarde'', feminine of ''coquard'' (va ...
s, and epaulettes of various colors as an ''ad hoc'' form of rank insignia, as General George Washington wrote in 1775:
In 1776, captains were to have buff or white cockades.
;Rank insignia in 1775
Later on in the war, the Continental Army established its own uniform with a black and white cockade among all ranks. Infantry officers had silver and other branches gold insignia:
;Rank insignia in 1780
See also
* History of the United States Army
* List of infantry weapons in the American Revolution
This is a list of infantry weapons used in the American Revolutionary War.
American weapons
All of these weapons were commonly used in the revolutionary war.
Brown Bess
The "Brown Bess" Muzzleloader, muzzle-loading smoothbore musket is one of t ...
* George Washington in the American Revolution
Notes
References
Citations
Literature
* Anonymous (1940). ''Morristown National Historic Park.'' National Park Service.
* Anonymous (1975). "Continental Army Logistics—The Quartermaster and Commissary Departments." ''Army Logistician'' 7(4): 28–32.
* Anonymous (1975a). "Continental Army Logistics—Engineer, Ordnance, and Medical Support." ''Army Logistician'' 7(5): 24–28.
* Anonymous (1983). ''A History and Guide. Morristown National Historical Park.'' National Park Service.
* Bell, J.L. (2012). ''George Washington's Headquarters and Home. Cambridge, Massachusetts.'' National Park Service.
* Billias, George Athan, ed., ''George Washington's Generals'' (1980)
* Bodle, Wayne K. (2002) ''The Valley Forge Winter: Civilians and Soldiers in War.''
* Bodle, Wayne K. (1982). ''Valley Forge Historical Research Report.'' National Park Service.
* Brown, Lenard E. (1967). ''Morristown Winter Encampment.'' National Park Service.
* Carp, E. Wayne. ''To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783.'' (U of North Carolina Press, 1984). .
* Clay, Steven E. (2018 ). ''Staff Ride Handbook for the Saratoga Campaign, 13 June to 8 November 1777.'' Combat Studies Institute Press.
* Commager, Henry Steele, and Richard Brandon Morris, eds. ''The spirit of 'seventy-six: the story of the American Revolution as told by participants'' (1975)
online
* Cox, Caroline. ''A Proper Sense of Honor: Service and Sacrifice in George Washington's Army'' (2004).
* Elliot, Steven (2017). "Hills, Huts, and Horse-Teams: The New Jersey Environment and Continental Army Winter Encampments, 1778–1780." ''New Jersey Studies'' 3(1): 107–136.
* Ferling, John. ''Whirlwind: The American Revolution and the War That Won It'' (2015).
* Fisher, Charles L. (1983) "Archaeology at New Windsor Cantonment: Construction and Social Reproduction at a Revolutionary War Encampment." ''Northeast Historical Archaeology'' 12:15–23.
* Fleming, Thomas. ''The Strategy of Victory: How General George Washington Won the American Revolution'' (Hachette, 2017).
* Franklin, Walter S. (1838 ). ''Resolutions, laws, and ordinances relating to the pay, half-pay, bounty lands and other promises made by Congress to the officers and soldiers of the Revolution.'' Washington.
* Gillett, Mary C. ''The Army Medical Department, 1775–1818.'' (Washington: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1981).
* Higginbotham, Don. ''The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789'' (1971
on line
* Lengel, Edward G. ''General George Washington: A Military Life.'' (2005).
* Lesser, Charles (1976). ''The Sinews of Independence.'' The University of Chicago Press.
* Martin, James Kirby, and Mark Edward Lender. ''A Respectable Army: The Military Origins of the Republic, 1763–1789.'' (2nd ed. Harlan Davidson), 2006. .
* Mayer, Holly A. ''Belonging to the Army: Camp Followers and Community during the American Revolution.'' Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1999. ; .
* Neimeyer, Charles Patrick. ''America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army'' (1995
complete text online
* Palmer, Dave Richard. ''George Washington's Military Genius'' (2012).
*
* Peckham,Howard H. (1974), ''The Toll of Independence.'' Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
* Royster, Charles. ''A Revolutionary People at War: The Continental Army and American Character, 1775–1783.'' (U of North Carolina Press, 1979)
online
* , 451 pages
* Scheer, George F. ''Private Yankee Doodle: A Narrative of Some of the Adventures, Dangers and Sufferings of a Revolutionary Soldier oseph Plumb Martin'' (1962).
* Wehmann, Howard H. (1989) ''A guide to pre-federal records in the National Archives.'' National Archives and Records Administration.
* Weig, Melvin J. (1950). ''Morristown: A Military Capital of the American Revolution.'' National Park Service.
External links
"Von Steuben's Continentals"
— a video on YouTube
YouTube is an American social media and online video sharing platform owned by Google. YouTube was founded on February 14, 2005, by Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and Jawed Karim who were three former employees of PayPal. Headquartered in ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:Continental Army
1775 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
18th-century history of the United States Army
18th-century military history of the United States
Disbanded armies