consonant clusters

In linguistics, a consonant cluster, consonant sequence or consonant compound is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. In English, for example, the groups and are consonant clusters in the word ''splits''. In the education field it is variously called a consonant cluster or a consonant blend.

Some linguists argue that the term can be properly applied only to those consonant clusters that occur within one syllable. Others claim that the concept is more useful when it includes consonant sequences across syllable boundaries. According to the former definition, the longest consonant clusters in the word ''extra'' would be and , whereas the latter allows , which is phonetically in some accents.

Phonotactics

Each language has an associated set of phonotactic constraints. Languages' phonotactics differ as to what consonant clusters they permit. Many languages are more restrictive than English in terms of consonant clusters, and some forbid consonant clusters entirely.

For example, Hawaiian, like most Oceanic languages, forbids consonant clusters entirely. Japanese is almost as strict, but allows a sequence of a nasal consonant plus another consonant, as in (the name of the largest island of Japan). It also permits geminate /kk/, /pp/, /ss/, and /tt/. However, palatalized consonants, such as ʲin , are single consonants.

Standard Arabic forbids initial consonant clusters and more than two consecutive consonants in other positions, as do most other Semitic languages, although Modern Israeli Hebrew permits initial two-consonant clusters (e.g. "cap"; "pumpkin"), and Moroccan Arabic, under Berber influence, allows strings of several consonants.

Like most Mon–Khmer languages, Khmer permits only initial consonant clusters with up to three consonants in a row per syllable. Finnish has initial consonant clusters natively only on South-Western dialects and on foreign loans, and only clusters of three inside the word are allowed. Most spoken languages and dialects, however, are more permissive. In Burmese, consonant clusters of only up to three consonants (the initial and two medials—two written forms of , ) at the initial onset are allowed in writing and only two (the initial and one medial) are pronounced; these clusters are restricted to certain letters. Some Burmese dialects allow for clusters of up to four consonants (with the addition of the medial, which can combine with the above-mentioned medials).

At the other end of the scale, the Kartvelian languages of Georgia are drastically more permissive of consonant clustering. Clusters in Georgian of four, five or six consonants are not unusual—for instance, (''flat''), (''trainer'') and (''peeling'')—and if grammatical affixes are used, it allows an eight-consonant cluster: (''he's plucking us''), (''you peel us''). Consonants cannot appear as syllable nuclei in Georgian, so this syllable is analysed as CCCCCCCCVC. Many Slavic languages may manifest almost as formidable numbers of consecutive consonants, such as in the Czech tongue twister (), meaning 'stick a finger through the neck', the Slovak words ("quarter"), and ("clunk"; "flop"), and the Slovene word ("welfare"). However, the liquid consonants and can form syllable nuclei in West and South Slavic languages and behave phonologically as vowels in this case.

An example of a true initial cluster is the Polish word ( ("you will initiate"). In the Serbo-Croatian word ("victualling") the and are digraphs representing single consonants: and , respectively. In Dutch, clusters of six or even seven consonants are possible (e.g. ("a scream of fear"), ("writing the worst") and ("treading the most softly")).

Some Salishan languages exhibit long words with no vowels at all, such as the Nuxálk word : ''he had had in his possession a bunchberry plant''. It is extremely difficult to accurately classify which of these consonants may be acting as the syllable nucleus, and these languages challenge classical notions of exactly what constitutes a syllable. The same problem is encountered in the Northern Berber languages.

There has been a trend to reduce and simplify consonant clusters in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, such as Chinese and Vietnamese. Old Chinese was known to contain additional medials such as and/or , which yielded retroflexion in Middle Chinese and today's Mandarin Chinese. The word , read in Mandarin and in Cantonese, is reconstructed as ''*klong'' or ''*krung'' in Old Chinese by Sinologists like Zhengzhang Shangfang, William H. Baxter, and Laurent Sagart. Additionally, initial clusters such as "tk" and "sn" were analysed in recent reconstructions of Old Chinese, and some were developed as palatalised sibilants. Similarly, in Thai, words with initial consonant clusters are commonly reduced in colloquial speech to pronounce only the initial consonant, such as the pronunciation of the word reducing from to .

Another element of consonant clusters in Old Chinese was analysed in coda and post-coda position. Some "departing tone" syllables have cognates in the "entering tone" syllables, which feature a -p, -t, -k in Middle Chinese and Southern Chinese varieties. The departing tone was analysed to feature a post-coda sibilant, "s". Clusters of -ps, -ts, -ks, were then formed at the end of syllables. These clusters eventually collapsed into "-ts" or "-s", before disappearing altogether, leaving elements of diphthongisation in more modern varieties. Old Vietnamese also had a rich inventory of initial clusters, but these were slowly merged with plain initials during Middle Vietnamese, and some have developed into the palatal nasal.

Origin

Some consonant clusters originate from the loss of a vowel in between two consonants, usually (but not always) due to vowel reduction caused by lack of stress. This is also the origin of most consonant clusters in English, some of which go back to Proto-Indo-European times. For example, comes from Proto-Germanic *glo-, which in turn comes from Proto-Indo-European *gʰel-ó, where *gʰel- is a root meaning 'to shine, to be bright' and is also present in , , and .

Consonant clusters can also originate from assimilation of a consonant with a vowel. In many Slavic languages, the combination mji, mje, mja etc. regularly gave mlji, mlje, mlja etc. Compare Russian , which had this change, with Polish , which lacks the change, both from Proto-Balto-Slavic *źemē. See Proto-Slavic language and History of Proto-Slavic for more information about this change.

Clusters in languages

All languages differ in syllable structure and cluster template. A loanword from Adyghe in the extinct Ubykh language, ('to well up'), violates Ubykh's limit of two initial consonants. The English words ''sphere'' and ''sphinx'' , Greek loanwords, break the rule that two fricatives may not appear adjacently word-initially. Some English words, including thrash, three, throat, and throw, start with the voiceless dental fricative /θ/, the liquid /r/, or the /r/ cluster (/θ/+/r/). This cluster example in Proto-Germanic has a counterpart in which /θ/ was followed by /l/. In early North and West Germanic, the /l/ cluster disappeared. This suggests that clusters are affected as words are loaned to other languages. The examples show that every language has syllable preference based on syllable structure and segment harmony of the language. Other factors that affect clusters when loaned to other languages include speech rate, articulatory factors, and speech perceptivity. Bayley has added that social factors such as age, gender, and geographical locations of speakers can determine clusters when they are loaned crosslinguistically.

English

In English, the longest possible initial cluster is three consonants, as in ''split'' , ''strudel'' , ''strengths'' , and "squirrel" , all beginning with or , containing , , or , and ending with , , or ; the longest possible final cluster is five consonants, as in ''angsts'' (), though this is rare (perhaps owing to being derived from a recent German loanword). However, the in ''angsts'' may also be considered epenthetic; for many speakers, nasal-sibilant sequences in the coda require insertion of a voiceless stop homorganic to the nasal. For speakers without this feature, the word is pronounced without the . Final clusters of four consonants, as in ''angsts'' in other dialects (), ''twelfths'' , ''sixths'' , ''bursts'' (in rhotic accents) and ''glimpsed'' , are more common. Within compound words, clusters of five consonants or more are possible (if cross-syllabic clusters are accepted), as in ''handspring'' and in the Yorkshire place-name of '' Hampsthwaite'' .

It is important to distinguish clusters and digraphs. Clusters are made of two or more consonant ''sounds'', while a digraph is a group of two consonant ''letters'' standing for a single sound. For example, in the word ''ship'', the two letters of the digraph together represent the single consonant . Conversely, the letter can produce the consonant clusters (annex), (exist), (sexual), or (some pronunciations of "luxury"). It is worth noting that often produces sounds in two different syllables (following the general principle of saturating the subsequent syllable before assigning sounds to the preceding syllable). Also note a combination digraph and cluster as seen in ''length'' with two digraphs , representing a cluster of two consonants: (although it may be pronounced instead, as followed by a voiceless consonant in the same syllable often does); ''lights'' with a silent digraph followed by a cluster , : ; and compound words such as ''sightscreen'' or ''catchphrase'' .

Frequency

Not all consonant clusters are distributed equally among the languages of the world. Consonant clusters have a tendency to fall under patterns such as the sonority sequencing principle (SSP); the closer a consonant in a cluster is to the syllable's vowel, the more sonorous the consonant is. Among the most common types of clusters are initial stop-liquid sequences, such as in Thai (e.g. , , and ). Other common ones include initial stop-approximant (e.g. Thai ) and initial fricative-liquid (e.g. English ) sequences. More rare are sequences which defy the SSP such as Proto-Indo-European and (which many of its descendants have, including English). Certain consonants are more or less likely to appear in consonant clusters, especially in certain positions. The Tsou language of Taiwan has initial clusters such as , which doesn't violate the SSP, but nonetheless is unusual in having the labio-dental in the second position. The cluster is also rare, but occurs in Russian words such as ().

Consonant clusters at the ends of syllables are less common but follow the same principles. Clusters are more likely to begin with a liquid, approximant, or nasal and end with a fricative, affricate, or stop, such as in English "world" . Yet again, there are exceptions, such as English "lapse" .

See also

* English consonant cluster reductions
* Vowel cluster
* Conjunct consonant
* Consonant stacking

Notes

References

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Phonotactics
Phonetics
Phonology