Conduct books or conduct literature is a

genre Genre () is any style or form of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other fo ...

of books that attempt to educate the reader on

social norm A social norm is a shared standard of acceptance, acceptable behavior by a group. Social norms can both be informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society, as well as be codified into wikt:rule, rules and laws. Social norma ...

s and ideals. As a genre, they began in either the

High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the periodization, period of European history between and ; it was preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended according to historiographical convention ...

or the

Late Middle Ages The late Middle Ages or late medieval period was the Periodization, period of History of Europe, European history lasting from 1300 to 1500 AD. The late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period ( ...

, although antecedents such as ''

The Maxims of Ptahhotep ''The Maxims of Ptahhotep'' or ''Instruction of Ptahhotep'' is an ancient Egyptian literary composition by the Vizier Ptahhotep around 2375–2350 BC, during the rule of King Djedkare Isesi of the Fifth Dynasty. The text was discovered in The ...

'' (c. 2350 BCE) are among the earliest surviving works. Conduct books remained popular through the 18th century, although they gradually declined with the advent of the

novel A novel is an extended work of narrative fiction usually written in prose and published as a book. The word derives from the for 'new', 'news', or 'short story (of something new)', itself from the , a singular noun use of the neuter plural of ...

Overview

In the introduction to her bibliography of American conduct books published before 1900, Sarah E. Newton defines the conduct book as

a text that is intended for an inexperienced young adult or other youthful reader, that defines an ethical, Christian-based code of behavior, and that normally includes
gender role A gender role, or sex role, is a social norm deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity. The specifics regarding these gendered ...
definitions. Thus "conduct book" embraces those texts whose primary aim is to describe and define a basically Protestant scheme of life, morals, and behavior, in order to encourage ideal conduct in white, generally middle-class children, young men, or young women.

Conduct books do not deal exclusively with questions of

etiquette Etiquette ( /ˈɛtikɛt, -kɪt/) can be defined as a set of norms of personal behavior in polite society, usually occurring in the form of an ethical code of the expected and accepted social behaviors that accord with the conventions and ...

, but rather with the conduct of one's life in a broader, ethical sense. Conduct books are typically addressed to a specific audience but also to society more broadly, and address themes including

moral education Character education is an umbrella term loosely used to describe the teaching of children and adults in a manner that will help them develop variously as moral, civic, good, mannered, behaved, non-bullying, healthy, critical, successful, traditiona ...

and

gender roles A gender role, or sex role, is a social norm deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity. The specifics regarding these gende ...

. Their tone may be both admonitory and hortatory, instructing readers both on how to behave and how ''not'' to behave. The critic

Nancy Armstrong Nancy Armstrong (born 1938) is a scholar, critic and professor of English at Duke University. Overview Before moving to Duke, Armstrong was the Nancy Duke Lewis Professor of Comparative Literature, English, Modern Culture & Media, and Gender Studi ...

argues that conduct books "represented a specific configuration of sexual features as those of the only appropriate woman for men at all levels of society to want as a wife", while also providing "people from diverse social groups with a basis for imagining economic interests in common." Armstrong argues that conduct books addressed readers who belonged neither to the

aristocracy Aristocracy (; ) is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocracy (class), aristocrats. Across Europe, the aristocracy exercised immense Economy, economic, Politics, political, and soc ...

nor to the

working class The working class is a subset of employees who are compensated with wage or salary-based contracts, whose exact membership varies from definition to definition. Members of the working class rely primarily upon earnings from wage labour. Most c ...

, thereby paradoxically targeting a

middle class The middle class refers to a class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy, often defined by occupation, income, education, or social status. The term has historically been associated with modernity, capitalism and political debate. C ...

audience that did not take shape until a later period—"a middle class that was not actually there."

Holy Roman Empire

In the

Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...

, Adolph Franz Friedrich Ludwig Freiherr Knigge wrote the book (1788) ('), a treatise on the fundamental principles of human relations that has the reputation of being the authoritative guide to behaviour, politeness, and etiquette in

Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...

. The work is more of a sociological and philosophical treatise on the basis of human relations than a how-to guide on etiquette, but the German word has come to mean or books on etiquette.

United States

From the colonial period British and European conduct books were reprinted by American publishers and became popular; until the late 18th and early 19th centuries such imported volumes were the primary source of Americans' behavioral and moral guidance. American conduct books were addressed predominantly to middle-class readers and addressed middle-class concerns. Newton argues that these texts "reflected questions about gentility, right-doing, and manners, but more importantly questions about social identity and roles and how to live good and successful lives." A typical mid-19th-century conduct book for young women would deal with topics including women's responsibilities, domesticity and love of the home, religion, education, courtship and marriage, women's duties to their husbands and children, and "female qualities" such as cheerfulness, humility and submission; while a conduct book for young men of the same period would address themes including ambition, self-reliance, self-improvement, honesty, punctuality, choice of friends and marriage. In her study of American conduct books published between 1830 and 1860, Jane E. Rose argues that conduct books in this period "glorify

Republican Motherhood "Republican motherhood" is a 20th-century term for an 18th-century attitude toward women's roles present in the emerging United States before, during, and after the American Revolution. It centered on the belief that the patriots' daughters shou ...

and domesticity" by characterising the home as the appropriate sphere for women, as a tool for "fostering religion, uprightness, and virtue", and as "women's empire" through which women serve the nation by raising future leaders. Topics covered by conduct books in this period "might include domestic, religious, and wifely duties; advice on health and fashion; rules for dating, mental improvement, and education; the art of conversation and avoiding 'evil-speaking' and gossiping; and advice on fostering harmonious marital relationships." Rose argues that these books, which were aimed predominantly at middle-class white women, placed "certain limitations and restrictions upon women's autonomy, literacy, and educational and vocational opportunities." Popular 18th-century conduct books included

Philip Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield (22 September 169424 March 1773) was a British statesman, diplomat, man of letters, and an acclaimed wit of his time. Early life He was born in London to Philip Stanhope, 3rd Earl of Chesterfie ...

's ''Letters to His Son'' (1774), John Gregory's ''

A Father's Legacy to His Daughters ''A Father's Legacy to his Daughters'' is a book, written by Dr John Gregory (1724 – 1773), Scottish physician, medical writer and moralist. Dr Gregory wrote ''A Father's Legacy to his Daughters'' after the death of his wife in 1761, in orde ...

'' (1774),

Hester Chapone Hester Chapone ''née'' Mulso (27 October 1727, in Twywell, Northamptonshire – 25 December 1801, in Monken Hadley, Hadwell, Middlesex), was an English writer of conduct books for women. She became associated with the London Blue Stockings Soc ...

's ''Letters on the Improvement of the Mind'' (1773), William Kenrick's ''The Whole Duty of Woman'' (1753), and the

compendium A compendium ( compendia or compendiums) is a comprehensive collection of information and analysis pertaining to a body of knowledge. A compendium may concisely summarize a larger work. In most cases, the body of knowledge will concern a specific ...

''The Lady's Pocket Library'' (1792), published by

Mathew Carey Mathew Carey (January 28, 1760 – September 16, 1839) was an Irish-born American publisher and economist who lived and worked in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In Dublin, he had engaged in the cause of parliamentary reform, and in America, attract ...

, which included selections by

Hannah More Hannah More (2 February 1745 – 7 September 1833) was an English religious writer, philanthropist, poet, and playwright in the circle of Johnson, Reynolds and Garrick, who wrote on moral and religious subjects. Born in Bristol, she taught at ...

Sarah, Lady Pennington Sarah, Lady Pennington, née Moore (c.1720, Bath, Somerset – August 1783, Fulmer),Anne-Thérèse de Marguenat de Courcelles and

Jonathan Swift Jonathan Swift (30 November 1667 – 19 October 1745) was an Anglo-Irish writer, essayist, satirist, and Anglican cleric. In 1713, he became the Dean (Christianity), dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, and was given the sobriquet "Dean Swi ...

. In the 19th century, popular conduct books included

Henry Ward Beecher Henry Ward Beecher (June 24, 1813 – March 8, 1887) was an American Congregationalist clergyman, social reformer, and speaker, known for his support of the Abolitionism, abolition of slavery, his emphasis on God's love, and his 1875 adultery ...

's ''Lectures to Young Men'' (1844),

William Alcott William Andrus Alcott (August 6, 1798 – March 29, 1859), also known as William Alexander Alcott, was an American educator, educational reformer, physician, vegetarian and author of many books. His works, which include a wide range of topics i ...

's ''The Young Man's Guide'' (1834), ''The Young Wife'', ''The Young Woman's Guide to Excellence'', ''The Boy's Guide to Usefulness'', and ''Familiar Letters to Young Men on Various Subjects'',

Lydia Sigourney Lydia Huntley Sigourney (September 1, 1791 – June 10, 1865), Lydia Howard Huntley, was an American poet, author, and publisher during the early and mid 19th century. She was commonly known as the "Sweet Singer of Hartford, Connecticut, Hartfor ...

's ''Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse'' (1815), ''How to Be Happy'' (1833) and ''Letters to Young Ladies'' (1833), Harvey Newcomb's ''A Practical Directory for Young Christian Females'', ''The Young Lady's Guide to the Harmonious Development of Christian Character'', ''How to Be a Man'', ''Anecdotes for Girls'', ''How to Be a Lady'' and ''Anecdotes for Boys'', and

Timothy Shay Arthur Timothy Shay Arthur (June 6, 1809 – March 6, 1885) — known as T. S. Arthur — was a popular 19th-century American writer. He is famously known for his temperance novel '' Ten Nights in a Bar-Room and What I Saw There'' (1854), which helped ...

's ''Advice to Young Ladies on Their Duties and Conduct in Life'' (1848) and its companion volume ''Advice to Young Men on Their Duties and Conduct in Life'' (1848).

Black conduct books in the early 20th century

Coming out of the

American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...

at the turn of the 20th century, conduct grew in importance among African American activists, leading to the development and popularity of black conduct books. These books, curated by select elite African American men, were designed with the intention of controlling representations of African Americans in the public sphere through the actions and image of young black girls. During the Great Migration of the early twentieth century, both physical and cultural movement of people changed the geography of social interaction within the United States, contributing to rising anxiety about national identity, socioeconomic stability, and girlhood among black and white families alike. White supremacist literature such as ''The Clansman: An Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan'' (1905) contributed to the fearmongering racist ideologies of the time by relying on the false narrative that criminality is inherent to black communities. White democrats passed a series of

Jim Crow laws The Jim Crow laws were U.S. state, state and local laws introduced in the Southern United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that enforced Racial segregation in the United States, racial segregation, "Jim Crow (character), Ji ...

to create a system of legal racial segregation in both public and private facilities of the south as hysteria rose among the white ruling class of both Northern and Southern states related to the safety and privilege of their race. The racial violence seen during slavery was continued through a legacy of brutality and systemic oppression, evidenced by the trend of

lynching Lynching is an extrajudicial killing by a group. It is most often used to characterize informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged or convicted transgressor or to intimidate others. It can also be an extreme form of i ...

African Americans even into the twenty-first century. In response to the violence of this period, conduct books and manuals published by black writers ushered in the era of the "

New Negro "New Negro" is a term popularized during the Harlem Renaissance implying a more outspoken advocacy of dignity and a refusal to submit quietly to the practices and laws of Jim Crow racial segregation. The term "New Negro" was made popular by Al ...

," a model of moral integrity and behavioral codes that white democrats would recognize as genteel in nature. These conduct books used girls and boys as protagonists in the teaching of racial etiquette and moral refinement. Nazera Sadiq Wright, author of ''Black Girlhood in the Nineteenth Century'', argues that black girls in literature became a rubric for African American citizenship and racial progress in print media of the 19th and early 20th century. Girls were specifically targeted in the creation and distribution of racial conduct manuals, as writers believed that black girls behavior negatively affected how the dominant culture perceived black individuals, and that this behavior resulted in serious consequences for the entire race. Books were advertised to girls and their families as a tool to help black families advance in society through the actions of their daughters, placing the future of African Americans on the shoulders of young black girls. Black girls were made responsible for the moral, mental, and physical states of coming generations, and it was believed that their utmost responsibility was to produce superior individuals. In addition to being quiet, demure, hygienic, and apologetic, girls were also to shield themselves from unwanted advances, invest in their education, and obey their parents or husbands. "Life will be safer for the girls who understands her own nature and reverences her womanhood, who realizes her responsibility toward the race and conducts herself in accordance with that realization.". The codes published in turn-of-the-century manuals contained some information that was helpful to the health and wellbeing of young black girls; however, they also advocated for rigid rules that restricted their lives and silenced their feelings. The ideal black girls of conduct manuals were not just dutiful and moral domestic servants, but beautiful as well. Respectability was often conflated with appearance, and conduct books instructed girls on how to present themselves both physically and socially into proper ladies, directing them towards a formulaic way of thinking that discouraged loud, uncaring, or reckless behavior in favor of quiet and thoughtful manners. Behaving like ladies was essential to their own wellbeing in society as well as the wellbeing of the race, as boisterous and unladylike conduct was believed to further stereotypes of black women as overly sexual. In contrast, the image of the proper young black girl was one of modesty and purity, aligned with the conduct and appearance of elite white girls of the time. Narratives of black girls portrayed through conduct manuals often relied on imagery – either hand-sketches or photography – to illustrate the effects of "proper" conduct on the lives of young black women. "Before" pictures of black girls illustrated an appearance of disarray, unruliness, poor grooming, and vacancy of expression, while "after" pictures illustrated her new, bourgeoisie appearance and quiet, but intellectual, personality after receiving an upper-class education. Some of these images even made girls appear visibly lighter or Eurocentric, demonstrating that proper conduct can make girls more beautiful. These changes, which transformed lower-class black girls into the embodiment of the ideal female New Negro, prepared women for political and social activism within their communities and the domestic roles of a wife and mother, suggesting that marriage is the ultimate reward for education and cultivation. Popular black conduct books of the early-20th century include: ''Floyd's Flowers'', ''Morals and Manners'', ''Working with Your Hands'', ''Golden Thoughts on Chastity and Procreation'', and ''Don't! A Book for Girls''. Of these, ''Floyd's Flowers'' by Silas X. Floyd is one of the most significant, spanning several editions and publication sites to prepare readers for the "responsibilities of freedom". "Scholars consider ''Floyd's Flowers'' a 'historical rarity' and an early black textbook that taught young black readers 'conventional morality and the self-help philosophy'".

Significance

Newton argues that conduct books

have promoted political ends; they have aesthetically influenced female characterization and plot development in early American as well as English novels; and they have certainly helped perpetuate traditional American views about female place and roles that emerged, in Barbara Welter's phrase, as the "
Cult of True Womanhood The Culture of Domesticity (often shortened to Cult of Domesticity) or Cult of True Womanhood is a term used by historians to describe what they consider to have been a prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes during the 19th c ...
."

Armstrong argues that because conduct books appeared to have no political bias, the rules codified in them "took on the power of

natural law Natural law (, ) is a Philosophy, philosophical and legal theory that posits the existence of a set of inherent laws derived from nature and universal moral principles, which are discoverable through reason. In ethics, natural law theory asserts ...

"; and that as a result "they presented—in actuality, still present—readers with

ideology An ideology is a set of beliefs or values attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely about belief in certain knowledge, in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones". Form ...

in its most powerful form." Elsewhere Armstrong and Leonard Tennenhouse argue that "Of the means which European culture has developed to create and regulate desire, conduct books for women and certain other form of writing now known as literature offer us the clearest examples", and go on to argue that "the production of specific forms of desire has created and maintained specific forms of political authority". While black conduct books were viewed as valuable in providing guidance to African Americans navigating the social challenges of integrating into white society post-war, they were also problematic in many ways. The importance of

respectability politics Respectability politics, or the politics of respectability, is a political strategy wherein members of a marginalized community will consciously abandon or punish controversial aspects of their cultural-political identity as a method of assimi ...

emphasized in these texts perpetuated classist and racist attitudes within the black community about what it means to be respectable, often embracing assimilationist ideals by promoting the ideals of white, middle- and upper-class society in the raising of young black girls. They also adhered to

traditional gender roles A gender role, or sex role, is a social norm deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity. The specifics regarding these gendered ...

, placing greater emphasis on the etiquette and behavior of women and reinforcing patriarchal structures within communities. Adopting these views silenced the voices of black girls and women, as the importance of patience, restraint, and propriety was viewed more favorably than resisting systems of oppression.

Notes

References

Literary Encyclopedia: Conduct BookReview of ''The Crisis of Courtesy: Studies in the Conduct-Book in Britain, 1600–1900'' by Jacques Carre
* * * * *

Publications

*''A Collection of Conduct Books for Girls and Boys in 19th century America in 5 vols.'', edited by Toshiko Nonomura. {{ISBN, 978-4-86166-044-3 * Non-fiction genres Etiquette