In digital typography, combining characters are characters that are intended to modify other characters. The most common combining characters in the Latin script are the combining diacritical marks (including combining accents).

Unicode Unicode or ''The Unicode Standard'' or TUS is a character encoding standard maintained by the Unicode Consortium designed to support the use of text in all of the world's writing systems that can be digitized. Version 16.0 defines 154,998 Char ...

also contains many

precomposed character A precomposed character (alternatively composite character or decomposable character) is a Unicode entity that can also be defined as a sequence of one or more other characters. A precomposed character may typically represent a letter with a diac ...

s, so that in many cases it is possible to use both combining diacritics and precomposed characters, at the user's or application's choice. This leads to a requirement to perform

Unicode normalization Unicode equivalence is the specification by the Unicode character (computing), character encoding standard that some sequences of code points represent essentially the same character. This feature was introduced in the standard to allow compatibi ...

before comparing two Unicode strings and to carefully design encoding converters to correctly map all of the valid ways to represent a character in Unicode to a legacy encoding to avoid data loss. In Unicode, the main block of combining diacritics for European languages and the

International Phonetic Alphabet The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin script. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association in the late 19th century as a standard written representation ...

is U+0300–U+036F. Combining diacritical marks are also present in many other blocks of Unicode characters. In Unicode, diacritics are always added after the main character (in contrast to some older combining character sets such as ANSEL), and it is possible to add several diacritics to the same character, including stacked diacritics above and below, though some systems may not render these well.

Unicode ranges

The following blocks are dedicated specifically to combining characters: *Combining Diacritical Marks (0300–036F), since version 1.0, with modifications in subsequent versions down to 4.1 *Combining Diacritical Marks Extended (1AB0–1AFF), version 7.0 *Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement (1DC0–1DFF), versions 4.1 to 5.2 *Combining Diacritical Marks for Symbols (20D0–20FF), since version 1.0, with modifications in subsequent versions down to 5.1 *Cyrillic Extended-A (2DE0–2DFF), version 5.1 *Combining Half Marks (FE20–FE2F), versions 1.0, with modifications in subsequent versions down to 8.0 Combining characters are not limited to these blocks; for instance, the combining dakuten (U+3099) and combining handakuten (U+309A) are in the Hiragana block, the

Devanagari Devanagari ( ; in script: , , ) is an Indic script used in the Indian subcontinent. It is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental Writing systems#Segmental systems: alphabets, writing system), based on the ancient ''Brāhmī script, Brā ...

block contains combining vowel signs and other marks for use with that script, and so forth. Combining characters are assigned the Unicode major category "M" ("Mark"). Codepoints U+032A and U+0346–034A are IPA symbols: * U+032A : dental * U+0346 : dentolabial * U+0347 : alveolar * U+0348 : strong articulation * U+0349 : weak articulation * U+034A : denasal Codepoints U+034B–034E are IPA diacritics for disordered speech: * U+034B : nasal escape * U+034C : velopharyngeal friction * U+034D : labial spreading * U+034E : whistled articulation U+034F is the " combining grapheme joiner" (CGJ) and has no visible glyph. Codepoints U+035C–0362 are double diacritics, diacritic signs placed across two letters. Codepoints U+0363–036F are medieval superscript letter diacritics, letters written directly above other letters appearing in medieval Germanic manuscripts, but in some instances in use until as late as the 19th century. For example, U+0364 is an ''e'' written above the preceding letter, to be used for ( Early) New High German umlaut notation, such as ''uͤ'' for Modern German ''ü''.

OpenType

OpenType has the ''ccmp'' "feature tag" to define glyphs that are compositions or decompositions involving combining characters, the ''mark'' tag to define the positioning of combining characters onto base glyph, and ''mkmk'' for the positionings of combining characters onto each other.

Zalgo text

Combining characters have been used to create Zalgo text, which is text that appears "corrupted" or "creepy" due to an overuse of combining characters. This causes the text to extend vertically, overlapping other text. This is mostly used in horror contexts on the

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. It is typically very challenging for most

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to render, so the combining marks are often reduced or completely stripped off.

Notes

External links

Combining diacritics chart
(in Adobe PDF format)
Combining diacritics supplement chart
(in Adobe PDF format)
Combining marks
test page facing combined and precomposed letters

DecodeUnicode.org combining diacritical marks reference
{{Unicode navigation Unicode special code points

Unicode ranges

OpenType

Zalgo text

See also

Notes

External links