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Cloisonné () is an ancient technique for decorating
metalwork Metalworking is the process of shaping and reshaping metals in order to create useful objects, parts, assemblies, and large scale structures. As a term, it covers a wide and diverse range of processes, skills, and tools for producing objects on e ...
objects with colored material held in place or separated by metal strips or
wire file:Sample cross-section of high tension power (pylon) line.jpg, Overhead power cabling. The conductor consists of seven strands of steel (centre, high tensile strength), surrounded by four outer layers of aluminium (high conductivity). Sample d ...
, normally of
gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
. In recent centuries,
vitreous enamel Vitreous enamel, also called porcelain enamel, is a material made by melting, fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between . The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable vitrification, vitreous coating. The wo ...
has been used, but inlays of cut
gemstone A gemstone (also called a fine gem, jewel, precious stone, semiprecious stone, or simply gem) is a piece of mineral crystal which, when cut or polished, is used to make jewellery, jewelry or other adornments. Certain Rock (geology), rocks (such ...
s, glass and other materials were also used during older periods; indeed cloisonné enamel very probably began as an easier imitation of cloisonné work using gems. The resulting objects can also be called cloisonné. The decoration is formed by first adding compartments (''cloisons'' in French) to the metal object by
solder Solder (; North American English, NA: ) is a fusible alloy, fusible metal alloy used to create a permanent bond between metal workpieces. Solder is melted in order to wet the parts of the joint, where it adheres to and connects the pieces aft ...
ing or affixing silver or gold as wires or thin strips placed on their edges. These remain visible in the finished piece, separating the different compartments of the enamel or inlays, which are often of several colors. Cloisonné enamel objects are worked on with enamel powder made into a paste, which then needs to be fired in a
kiln A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or Chemical Changes, chemical changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects m ...
. If gemstones or colored glass are used, the pieces need to be cut or ground into the shape of each cloison. In antiquity, the cloisonné technique was mostly used for jewellery and small fittings for clothes, weapons or similar small objects decorated with geometric or schematic designs, with thick cloison walls. In the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
techniques using thinner wires were developed to allow more pictorial images to be produced, mostly used for religious images and jewellery, and by then always using enamel. This was used in Europe, especially in
Carolingian The Carolingian dynasty ( ; known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings, Karolinger or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family named after Charles Martel and his grandson Charlemagne, descendants of the Arnulfing and Pippinid c ...
and Ottonian art. By the 14th century this enamel technique had been replaced in Europe by champlevé, but had then spread to China, where it was soon used for much larger vessels such as bowls and vases; the technique remains common in China to the present day, and ''cloisonné'' enamel objects using Chinese-derived styles were produced in the West from the 18th century. In Middle
Byzantine architecture Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire, usually dated from 330 AD, when Constantine the Great established a new Roman capital in Byzantium, which became Constantinople, until the Fall of Cons ...
cloisonné masonry refers to walls built with a regular mix of stone and
brick A brick is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Properly, the term ''brick'' denotes a unit primarily composed of clay. But is now also used informally to denote building un ...
, often with more of the latter. The 11th or 12th-century Pammakaristos Church in
Istanbul Istanbul is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, constituting the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With Demographics of Istanbul, a population over , it is home to 18% of the Demographics ...
is an example.


History


Ancient world

Cloisonné first developed in the jewellery of the ancient
Near East The Near East () is a transcontinental region around the Eastern Mediterranean encompassing the historical Fertile Crescent, the Levant, Anatolia, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula. The term was invented in the 20th ...
, and the earliest enamel all used the cloisonné technique, placing the enamel within small cells with gold walls. This had been used as a technique to hold pieces of stone and gems tightly in place since the 3rd millennium BC, for example in
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
, and then Egypt. Enamel seems likely to have developed as a cheaper method of achieving similar results. The earliest undisputed objects known to use enamel are a group of
Mycenae Mycenae ( ; ; or , ''Mykē̂nai'' or ''Mykḗnē'') is an archaeological site near Mykines, Greece, Mykines in Argolis, north-eastern Peloponnese, Greece. It is located about south-west of Athens; north of Argos, Peloponnese, Argos; and sou ...
an rings from Graves in
Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
, dated to the 12th century BC, and using very thin wire. In the jewellery of
ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt () was a cradle of civilization concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in Northeast Africa. It emerged from prehistoric Egypt around 3150BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology), when Upper and Lower E ...
, including the pectoral jewels of the
pharaoh Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian language, Egyptian: ''wikt:pr ꜥꜣ, pr ꜥꜣ''; Meroitic language, Meroitic: 𐦲𐦤𐦧, ; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') was the title of the monarch of ancient Egypt from the First Dynasty of Egypt, First Dynasty ( ...
s, thicker strips form the cloisons, which remain small. In Egypt gemstones and enamel-like materials sometimes called "glass-paste" were both used. Although Egyptian pieces, including jewellery from the
Tomb of Tutankhamun The tomb of Tutankhamun (reigned ), a pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt, Eighteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt, is located in the Valley of the Kings. The tomb, also known by its List of burials in the Valley of the Kings, tomb number KV ...
of , are frequently described as using "enamel", many scholars doubt the glass paste was sufficiently melted to be properly so described, and use terms such as "glass-paste". It seems possible that in Egyptian conditions the melting point of the glass and gold were too close to make enamel a viable technique. Nonetheless, there appear to be a few actual examples of enamel, perhaps from the
Third Intermediate Period of Egypt The Third Intermediate Period of ancient Egypt began with the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1077 BC, which ended the New Kingdom, and was eventually followed by the Late Period. Various points are offered as the beginning for the latt ...
(beginning 1070 BC) on. But it remained rare in both Egypt and Greece. The technique appears in the Koban culture of the northern and central
Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
, and was perhaps carried by the
Sarmatians The Sarmatians (; ; Latin: ) were a large confederation of Ancient Iranian peoples, ancient Iranian Eurasian nomads, equestrian nomadic peoples who dominated the Pontic–Caspian steppe, Pontic steppe from about the 5th century BCE to the 4t ...
to the ancient Celts, but they essentially used the champlevé technique. Subsequently, enamel was just one of the fillings used for the small, thick-walled cloisons of the
Late Antique Late antiquity marks the period that comes after the end of classical antiquity and stretches into the onset of the Early Middle Ages. Late antiquity as a period was popularized by Peter Brown in 1971, and this periodization has since been wide ...
and
Migration Period The Migration Period ( 300 to 600 AD), also known as the Barbarian Invasions, was a period in European history marked by large-scale migrations that saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire and subsequent settlement of its former territories ...
style. At
Sutton Hoo Sutton Hoo is the site of two Anglo-Saxon cemeteries dating from the 6th to 7th centuries near Woodbridge, Suffolk, England. Archaeology, Archaeologists have been excavating the area since 1938, when an undisturbed ship burial containing a wea ...
, the
Anglo-Saxon The Anglo-Saxons, in some contexts simply called Saxons or the English, were a Cultural identity, cultural group who spoke Old English and inhabited much of what is now England and south-eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. They traced t ...
pieces mostly use garnet cloisonné, but this is sometimes combined with enamel in the same piece. A problem that adds to the uncertainty over early enamel is artefacts (typically excavated) that appear to have been prepared for enamel, but have now lost whatever filled the cloisons. This occurs in several different regions, from ancient Egypt to Anglo-Saxon England. Once enamel becomes more common, as in medieval Europe after about 1000, the assumption that enamel was originally used becomes safer.


Byzantium and Europe

The Byzantines perfected a unique form of cloisonné
icon An icon () is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, in the cultures of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic Church, Catholic, and Lutheranism, Lutheran churches. The most common subjects include Jesus, Mary, mother of ...
s. Byzantine enamel spread to surrounding cultures and a particular type, often known as "garnet cloisonné" is widely found in the
Migration Period art Migration Period art denotes the artwork of the Germanic peoples during the Migration period (c. 300 – 800). It includes the Migration art of the Germanic tribes on the continent, as well the start of the Insular art or Hiberno-Saxon art of the ...
of the "
barbarian A barbarian is a person or tribe of people that is perceived to be primitive, savage and warlike. Many cultures have referred to other cultures as barbarians, sometimes out of misunderstanding and sometimes out of prejudice. A "barbarian" may ...
" peoples of Europe, who used gemstones, especially red
garnet Garnets () are a group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives. Garnet minerals, while sharing similar physical and crystallographic properties, exhibit a wide range of chemical compositions, de ...
s, as well as glass and enamel, with small thick-walled cloisons. Red garnets and gold made an attractive contrast of colours, and for Christians the garnet was a symbol of
Christ Jesus ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Christianity, central figure of Christianity, the M ...
. This type is now thought to have originated in the
Late Antique Late antiquity marks the period that comes after the end of classical antiquity and stretches into the onset of the Early Middle Ages. Late antiquity as a period was popularized by Peter Brown in 1971, and this periodization has since been wide ...
Eastern Roman Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
and to have initially reached the Migration peoples as diplomatic gifts of objects probably made in
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
, then copied by their own goldsmiths. Glass-paste ''cloisonné'' was made in the same periods with similar results – compare the gold
Anglo-Saxon The Anglo-Saxons, in some contexts simply called Saxons or the English, were a Cultural identity, cultural group who spoke Old English and inhabited much of what is now England and south-eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. They traced t ...
fitting with garnets (right) and the
Visigothic The Visigoths (; ) were a Germanic people united under the rule of a king and living within the Roman Empire during late antiquity. The Visigoths first appeared in the Balkans, as a Roman-allied barbarian military group united under the comman ...
brooch with glass-paste in the gallery. Thick ribbons of gold were soldered to the base of the sunken area to be decorated to make the compartments, before adding the stones or paste. In the Byzantine world the technique was developed into the thin-wire style suitable only for enamel described below, which was imitated in Europe from about the Carolingian period onwards. The dazzling technique of the
Anglo-Saxon The Anglo-Saxons, in some contexts simply called Saxons or the English, were a Cultural identity, cultural group who spoke Old English and inhabited much of what is now England and south-eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. They traced t ...
dress fittings from
Sutton Hoo Sutton Hoo is the site of two Anglo-Saxon cemeteries dating from the 6th to 7th centuries near Woodbridge, Suffolk, England. Archaeology, Archaeologists have been excavating the area since 1938, when an undisturbed ship burial containing a wea ...
include much garnet cloisonné, some using remarkably thin slices, enabling the patterned gold beneath to be seen. There is also imported millefiori glass cut to fit like the gems. Sometimes compartments filled with the different materials of cut stones or glass and enamel are mixed to ornament the same object, as in the Sutton Hoo purse-lid. From about the 8th century,
Byzantine art Byzantine art comprises the body of artistic products of the Eastern Roman Empire, as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from the decline of Rome, decline of western Rome and ...
began again to use much thinner wire more freely to allow much more complex designs to be used, with larger and less geometric compartments, which was only possible using enamel. These were still on relatively small objects, although numbers of plaques could be set into larger objects, such as the
Pala d'Oro Pala d'Oro (Italian Language, Italian, "Golden Panel") is the high altar retable of the St Mark's Basilica, Basilica di San Marco in Venice (and in Italian may refer to other gold altar frontals elsewhere). It is universally recognized as one of t ...
, the
altarpiece An altarpiece is a painting or sculpture, including relief, of religious subject matter made for placing at the back of or behind the altar of a Christian church. Though most commonly used for a single work of art such as a painting or sculpture, ...
in Saint Mark's Cathedral,
Venice Venice ( ; ; , formerly ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are li ...
. Some objects combined thick and thin cloisons for varied effect. The designs often (as at right) contained a generous background of plain gold, as in contemporary
Byzantine mosaics Byzantine mosaics are mosaics produced from the 4th to 15th centuries in and under the influence of the Byzantine Empire. Mosaics were some of the most popular and historically significant art forms produced in the empire, and they are still stud ...
. The area to be enamelled was stamped to create the main depression, pricked to help the enamel adhere, and the cloisons added. Two different techniques in Byzantine and European cloisonné enamel are distinguished, for which the German names are still typically used in English. The earliest is the ''Vollschmelz'' ("full" enamel, literally "full melt") technique where the whole of a gold base plate is to be covered in enamel. The edges of the plate are turned up to form a reservoir, and gold wires are soldered in place to form the ''cloisons''. The enamel design therefore covers the whole plate. In the ''Senkschmelz'' ("sunk" enamel, literally "sunk melt") technique the parts of the base plate to hold the design are hammered down, leaving a surrounding gold background, as also seen in contemporary Byzantine icons and mosaics with
gold glass Gold glass or gold sandwich glass is a luxury form of glass where a decorative design in gold leaf is fused between two layers of glass. First found in Hellenistic Greece, it is especially characteristic of the Roman glass of the Late Roman Em ...
backgrounds, and the saint illustrated here. The wires and enamels are then added as before. The outline of the design will be apparent on the reverse of the base plate. The transition between the two techniques occurs around 900 in Byzantine enamel, and 1000 in the West, though with important earlier examples. The plaques with apostles of around the latter date on the
Holy Crown of Hungary The Holy Crown of Hungary ( , ), also known as the Crown of Saint Stephen, named in honour of Saint Stephen I of Hungary, was the coronation crown used by the Kingdom of Hungary for most of its existence; kings were crowned with it since the tw ...
show a unique transitional phase, where the base plaque has hammered recesses for the design, as in ''senkschmelz'' work, but the enamel covers the whole plaque except for thick outlines around the figures and inscriptions, as in the ''vollschmelz'' technique (see the gallery below for examples of this technique and ''vollschmelz'' work). Some 10th-century pieces achieve a ''senkschmelz'' effect by using two plates superimposed on each other, the upper one with the design outline cut out and the lower one left plain. In medieval Western Europe cloisonné enamel technique was gradually overtaken by the rise of
champlevé enamel Champlevé is an enamelling technique in the decorative arts, or an object made by that process, in which troughs or cells are carved, etched, die struck, or Casting (metalworking), cast into the surface of a metal object, and filled with vitreou ...
, where the spaces for the enamel to fill are created by making recesses (using various methods) into the base object, rather than building up compartments from it, as in cloisonné. This happened during the 11th century in most centres in Western Europe, though not in Byzantium; the Stavelot Triptych,
Mosan art Mosan art is a regional style of art from the valley of the Meuse in present-day Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany. Although in a broader sense the term applies to art from this region from all periods, it generally refers to Romanesque ar ...
of around 1156, contains both types, but the inner cloisonné sections were probably gifts from
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
. Champlevé allowed increased expressiveness, especially in human figures, and was also cheaper, as the metal base was usually just
copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...
and if gold was used, it was generally to gild surrounding bare metal. In turn champlevé was replaced by the 14th or 15th century by painted enamels, once techniques were evolved that allowed the enamel to be painted onto a flat background without running.
Limoges enamel Limoges enamel has been produced at Limoges, in south-western France, over several centuries up to the present. There are two periods when it was of European importance. From the 12th century to 1370 there was a large industry producing metal o ...
was a great centre for both types.
Plique-à-jour ''Plique-à-jour'' (French for "letting in daylight") is a vitreous enamelling technique where the enamel is applied in cells, similar to cloisonné, but with no backing in the final product, so light can shine through the transparent or trans ...
is a related enameling technique which uses clear enamels and no metal backplate, producing an object that has the appearance of a miniature stained glass object - in effect cloisonné with no backing. Plique-a'-jour is usually created on a base of mica or thin copper which is subsequently peeled off (mica) or etched away with acid (copper). In the Renaissance the extravagant style of pieces effectively of plique-à-jour backed onto glass or
rock crystal Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica (silicon dioxide). The atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall chemical fo ...
was developed, but was never very common. Other ways of using the technique have been developed, but are of minor importance. In 19th century Japan it was used on
pottery Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other raw materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. The place where such wares are made by a ''potter'' is al ...
vessels with ceramic glazes, and it has been used with
lacquer Lacquer is a type of hard and usually shiny coating or finish applied to materials such as wood or metal. It is most often made from resin extracted from trees and waxes and has been in use since antiquity. Asian lacquerware, which may be c ...
and modern acrylic fillings for the cloisons. A version of cloisonné technique is often used for lapel badges, logo badges for many objects such as cars, including
BMW Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, trading as BMW Group (commonly abbreviated to BMW (), sometimes anglicised as Bavarian Motor Works), is a German multinational manufacturer of vehicles and motorcycles headquartered in Munich, Bavaria, Germany. Th ...
models, and other applications, though in these the metal base is normally cast with the compartments in place, so the use of the term cloisonné, though common, is questionable. That technique is correctly referred to by goldsmiths, metalsmiths and enamellists as champlevé. File:Dorestad Brooch AvL.JPG, The
Dorestad Dorestad (''Dorestat, Duristat'') was an early medieval emporium, located in the present-day province of Utrecht in the Netherlands, close to the modern-day town of Wijk bij Duurstede. It flourished during the 8th to early 9th centuries, as a ...
Brooch, c. 800, found in the
Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
. Gold, pearls, with cloisonné
almandine Almandine (), also known as almandite, is a mineral belonging to the garnet group. The name is a corruption of alabandicus, which is the name applied by Pliny the Elder to a stone found or worked at Alabanda, a town in Caria in Asia Minor. Alma ...
, enamel, and glass. File:Visigothic - Pair of Eagle Fibula - Walters 54421, 54422 - Group (cropped).jpg,
Visigothic The Visigoths (; ) were a Germanic people united under the rule of a king and living within the Roman Empire during late antiquity. The Visigoths first appeared in the Balkans, as a Roman-allied barbarian military group united under the comman ...
6th-century eagle-
fibula The fibula (: fibulae or fibulas) or calf bone is a leg bone on the lateral side of the tibia, to which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones and, in proportion to its length, the most slender of all the long bones. ...
, from
Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...
with garnets, amethysts, and colored glass, and some cloisons now empty. File:St Peter on the Holy Crown of Hungary.jpg, Plaque with
Saint Peter Saint Peter (born Shimon Bar Yonah; 1 BC – AD 64/68), also known as Peter the Apostle, Simon Peter, Simeon, Simon, or Cephas, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus and one of the first leaders of the Jewish Christian#Jerusalem ekklēsia, e ...
showing the unique transitional technique of the
Holy Crown of Hungary The Holy Crown of Hungary ( , ), also known as the Crown of Saint Stephen, named in honour of Saint Stephen I of Hungary, was the coronation crown used by the Kingdom of Hungary for most of its existence; kings were crowned with it since the tw ...
(see text) File:St George, Georgia (15th c).jpg,
St George Saint George (;Geʽez: ጊዮርጊስ, , ka, გიორგი, , , died 23 April 303), also George of Lydda, was an early Christian martyr who is venerated as a saint in Christianity. According to holy tradition, he was a soldier in the R ...
slaying the dragon, 12th century cloisonné enamel on gold,
Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States Georgia may also refer to: People and fictional characters * Georgia (name), a list of pe ...


China

From Byzantium or the Islamic world the technique reached
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
in the 13–14th centuries; the first written reference is in a book of 1388, where it is called "Dashi ware". No Chinese pieces clearly from the 14th century are known, the earliest datable pieces being from the reign of the Xuande Emperor (1425–35), which however show a full use of Chinese styles suggesting considerable experience in the technique. It was initially regarded with suspicion by Chinese connoisseurs, firstly as being foreign, and secondly as appealing to feminine taste. However, by the beginning of the 18th century the
Kangxi Emperor The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 165420 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, personal name Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign of 61 ...
had a ''cloisonné'' workshop among the many Imperial factories. The most elaborate and highly valued Chinese pieces are from the early
Ming Dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
, especially the reigns of the Xuande Emperor and
Jingtai Emperor The Jingtai Emperor (21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Daizong of Ming and by his posthumous name as the Emperor Jing of Ming, personal name Zhu Qiyu, was the seventh List of emperors of the Ming ...
(1450–57), although 19th century or modern pieces are far more common. The Chinese industry seems to have benefited from a number of skilled Byzantine refugees fleeing the
Fall of Constantinople The Fall of Constantinople, also known as the Conquest of Constantinople, was the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Empire. The city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 55-da ...
in 1453, although based on the name alone, it is far more likely China obtained knowledge of the technique from the middle east. In much Chinese ''cloisonné'' blue is usually the predominant colour, and the Chinese name for the technique, ''jingtailan'' ("Jingtai blue ware"), refers to this, and the Jingtai Emperor. Quality began to decline in the 19th century. Initially heavy
bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals (such as phosphorus) or metalloid ...
or
brass Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in proportions which can be varied to achieve different colours and mechanical, electrical, acoustic and chemical properties, but copper typically has the larger proportion, generally copper and zinc. I ...
bodies were used, and the wires soldered, but later much lighter
copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...
vessels were used, and the wire glued on before firing. The enamels compositions and the pigments change with time. Chinese ''cloisonné'' is sometimes confused with Canton enamel, a type of painted enamel on copper that is more closely related to overglaze enamels on
Chinese porcelain Chinese ceramics are one of the most significant forms of Chinese art and ceramics globally. They range from construction materials such as bricks and tiles, to hand-built pottery vessels fired in bonfires or kilns, to the sophisticated Chinese ...
, or
enamelled glass Enamelled glass or painted glass is glass which has been decorated with vitreous enamel (powdered glass, usually mixed with a binder) and then fired to glass fusing, fuse the glasses. It can produce brilliant and long-lasting colours, and be tr ...
. This is painted on freehand and so does not use partitions to hold the colours separate. In Byzantine pieces, and even more in Chinese work, the wire by no means always encloses a separate color of enamel. Sometime a wire is used just for decorative effect, stopping in the middle of a field of enamel, and sometimes the boundary between two enamel colors is not marked by a wire. In the Byzantine plaque at right the first feature may be seen in the top wire on the saint's black sleeve, and the second in the white of his eyes and collar. Both are also seen in the Chinese bowl illustrated at top right. File:Shrine with an Image of a Bodhisattva.jpg, Chinese shrine for a
Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
, 1736–1795. Shrine: Cloisonné enamel on copper alloy; Figure is copper with gems File:Cloisonneqing.jpg,
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
''cloisonné'' dish File:Qilin-shaped incense burner 1 CAC.JPG, Chinese ''cloisonné'' enamel
incense Incense is an aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremonial reasons. It ...
burner, 17th-18th centuries File:Carnegie Museum of Art - candlesticks 2.JPG, Chinese enameled and gilt candlestick from the 18th or 19th century, Qing dynasty


Japan

The Japanese also produced large quantities from the mid-19th century, of very high technical quality. During the
Meiji era The was an Japanese era name, era of History of Japan, Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feu ...
, Japanese cloisonné enamel reached a technical peak, producing items more advanced than any that had existed before. The period from 1890 to 1910 was known as the "Golden age" of Japanese enamels. An early centre of ''cloisonné'' was
Nagoya is the largest city in the Chūbu region of Japan. It is the list of cities in Japan, fourth-most populous city in Japan, with a population of 2.3million in 2020, and the principal city of the Chūkyō metropolitan area, which is the List of ...
during the
Owari Domain The Owari-Han, also known as the Owari Domain, was a significant feudal domain in Tokugawa shogunate, Japan during the Edo period. Situated in the western region of what is now Aichi Prefecture, it covered portions of Owari Province, Owari, Mino ...
, with the Ando Cloisonné Company the leading producer. Later centres were
Kyoto Kyoto ( or ; Japanese language, Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan's largest and most populous island of Honshu. , the city had a population of 1.46 million, making it t ...
and
Edo Edo (), also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo. Edo, formerly a (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the '' de facto'' capital of Japan from 1603 as the seat of the Tokugawa shogu ...
, and Kyoto resident Namikawa Yasuyuki and
Tokyo Tokyo, officially the Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan, capital and List of cities in Japan, most populous city in Japan. With a population of over 14 million in the city proper in 2023, it is List of largest cities, one of the most ...
(renamed from Edo) resident Namikawa Sōsuke exhibited their works at
World's fair A world's fair, also known as a universal exhibition, is a large global exhibition designed to showcase the achievements of nations. These exhibitions vary in character and are held in different parts of the world at a specific site for a perio ...
and won many awards. In Kyoto Namikawa became one of the leading companies of Japanese ''cloisonné''. The Namikawa Yasuyuki Cloisonné Museum is specifically dedicated to it. In Japan ''cloisonné'' enamels are known as ''shippō-yaki'' (七宝焼). Japanese enamels were regarded as unequalled thanks to the new achievements in design and colouring. File:Matching Pair of Cloisonné Vases, c. 1800-1894.jpg, Matching Pair of Cloisonné Vases, c. 1800–1894, from the Oxford College Archives of
Emory University Emory University is a private university, private research university in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. It was founded in 1836 as Emory College by the Methodist Episcopal Church and named in honor of Methodist bishop John Emory. Its main campu ...
File:Vase LACMA M.91.251.1 (2 of 2).jpg,
Kyoto Kyoto ( or ; Japanese language, Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan's largest and most populous island of Honshu. , the city had a population of 1.46 million, making it t ...
''Cloisonne'' Enamel, by Namikawa Yasuyuki (1845–1927) File:Khalili Collection Enamel cloisonne garniture 2019.jpg, '' Khalili Imperial Garniture''.
Meiji period The was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonizatio ...
, the largest ''cloisonné'' enamel in history at the time and was exhibited at the
World's Columbian Exposition The World's Columbian Exposition, also known as the Chicago World's Fair, was a world's fair held in Chicago from May 5 to October 31, 1893, to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World in 1492. The ...
in 1893. File:Namikawa Sosuke - Bowl with Chrysanthemum Blossoms - Walters 44546 - Profile (cropped).jpg,
Tokyo Tokyo, officially the Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan, capital and List of cities in Japan, most populous city in Japan. With a population of over 14 million in the city proper in 2023, it is List of largest cities, one of the most ...
''Cloisonne'' Enamel, ''Shōtai Shippō'' by Namikawa Sōsuke (c. 1900), translucent plique-a-jour enamel on silver. File:Khalili Collection Japanese Meiji Art E40.jpg, Pair of Two-fold Screens 1900–1905, Nagoya, Japan File:Ando Cloisonné Company - Vase with Flowering Cherry and Birds - Walters 44708.jpg, Ando Cloisonné Company, (c. 1910) File:田村丈雅 田村七宝工芸/八角南天文様七宝飾り箱.jpg, Owari Cloisonne Enamel Octagon by Takemasa Tamura


Russia

The first Russian ''cloisonné'' developed from Byzantine models during the period of
Kievan Rus Kievan Rus', also known as Kyivan Rus,. * was the first East Slavic state and later an amalgam of principalities in Eastern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.John Channon & Robert Hudson, ''Penguin Historical Atlas of Russ ...
, and has mainly survived in religious pieces.
Kiev Kyiv, also Kiev, is the capital and most populous List of cities in Ukraine, city of Ukraine. Located in the north-central part of the country, it straddles both sides of the Dnieper, Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2022, its population was 2, ...
was perhaps the only centre. The industry stopped with the Mongol invasion of Russia but revived in
Novgorod Veliky Novgorod ( ; , ; ), also known simply as Novgorod (), is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It is one of the oldest cities in Russia, being first mentioned in the 9th century. The city lies along the V ...
by the end of the 14th century, now using champlevé. Cloisonné barely returned until the 19th century, when it was used in revivalist styles by the House of Fabergé and Khlebnikov. Fabergé developed a style of raised and contoured metal shapes rising from the base plate, which were filled, though more thinly than in most cloisonné (effectively painted), leaving the metal edges clear. This is usually called cloisonné or "raised cloisonné", though the appropriateness of the term might be disputed, as in other types of cloisonné the surface is smooth, which is not the case with these.


Modern process

First the object to be decorated is made or obtained; this will normally be made by different craftspeople. The
metal A metal () is a material that, when polished or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electrical resistivity and conductivity, electricity and thermal conductivity, heat relatively well. These properties are all associated wit ...
usually used for making the body is copper, since it is cheap, light and easily hammered and stretched, but
gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
,
silver Silver is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag () and atomic number 47. A soft, whitish-gray, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. ...
or other metals may be used. ''Cloisonné'' wire is made from fine silver or fine gold and is usually about .010 x .040 inches in cross section. It is bent into shapes that define the colored areas. The bends are all done at right angles, so that the wire does not curve up. This is done with small pliers, tweezers, and custom-made jigs. The ''cloisonné'' wire pattern may consist of several intricately constructed wire patterns that fit together into a larger design. Solder can be used to join the wires, but this causes the enamel to discolour and form bubbles later on. Most existing Byzantine enamels have soldered cloisons, however the use of solder to adhere the cloison wires has fallen out of favor due to its difficulty, with the exception of some "purist contemporary enamellists" who create fine watch faces and high quality very expensive jewelry. Instead of soldering the cloisons to the base metal, the base metal is fired with a thin layer of clear enamel. The ''cloisonné'' wire is glued to the enamel surface with gum tragacanth. When the gum has dried, the piece is fired again to fuse the ''cloisonné'' wire to the clear enamel. The gum burns off, leaving no residue. Vitreous enamels in the different colors are ground to fine powders in an agate or porcelain mortar and pestle, then washed to remove the impurities that would discolor the fired enamel. The enamel is made from silica, niter, and lead oxide to which metallic oxides are added for coloring. These ingredients are melted together, forming a glassy frit which is ground again before application. Each color of enamel is prepared this way before it is used and then mixed with a very dilute solution of gum tragacanth. Using fine spatulas, brushes or droppers, the enameler places the fine colored powder into each cloison. The piece is left to dry completely before firing, which is done by putting the article, with its enamel fillings, in a kiln. The enamel in the cloisons will sink down a lot after firing, due to melting and shrinkage of the granular nature of the glass powder, much as sugar melting in an oven. This process is repeated until all cloisons are filled to the top of the wire edge. Three styles of ''cloisonné'' are most often seen: concave, convex, and flat. The finishing method determines this final appearance. With concave ''cloisonné'' the cloisons are not completely filled. Capillary action causes the enamel surface to curve up against the ''cloisonné'' wire when the enamel is molten, producing a concave appearance. Convex cloissoné is produced by overfilling each cloison, at the last firing. This gives each color area the appearance of slightly rounded mounds. Flat ''cloisonné'' is the most common. After all the cloisons are filled the enamel is ground down to a smooth surface with lapidary equipment, using the same techniques as are used for polishing cabochon stones. The top of the ''cloisonné'' wire is polished so it is flush with the enamel and has a bright lustre. Some ''cloisonné'' wire is electroplating, electroplated with a thin film of gold, which will not tarnish as silver does.


Examples


Enamel

* The 8th-century Irish Ardagh Chalice * The Alfred Jewel, a 9th-century Anglo-Saxon ornament * The Khakhuli triptych, a large gold altarpiece with over 100 Georgia (country), Georgian and Byzantine plaques, dating from the 8th to 12th centuries, said to be the largest enamelled work of art in the world. * the eyes of the 10th century Golden Madonna of Essen * The 12th century Mosan art, Mosan Stavelot Triptych, combining ''cloisonné'' and champlevé work. * The Khalili Imperial Garniture from late 19th century Japan


Gems and glass

* The Pectoral of Tutankhamun, (:File:Tutankhamun scarab1.jpg, image), and several others. * The 5th century grave goods of Childeric I#Tomb, Childeric I, last pagan king of the Franks, died c. 481 * The 5th-century Germanic Treasure of Pouan * The 6th-century Merovingian Treasure of Gourdon


Collections

Collections of Japanese cloisonné enamels are held at major museums including the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. The Namikawa Yasuyuki Cloisonné Museum in Kyoto is dedicated to the technique. A collection of 150 Chinese cloisonné pieces is at the G.W. Vincent Smith Art Museum in Springfield, Massachusetts. The Khalili Collection of Japanese Art, Khalili Collection of Japanese Meiji Art includes 107 cloisonné enamel art works, including many works by Namikawa Yasuyuki, Namikawa Sōsuke, Namikawa Sosuke, and Ando Jubei. Researchers have used the collection to establish a chronology of the development of Japanese enamelling.Earle, 254


Gallery

File:Cloisonnebeads.jpg, Modern ''cloisonné'' enamel beads File:Cloisonne artwork (Korea).jpg, ''Cloisonné'' artwork of Korea (namjung ''cloisonné'') File:CPPaternAndCloisonsDetail.jpg, Detail showing pattern and partially completed cloisons


See also

*Champlevé, enamelling into hollows made in a metal surface *Polychrome
vitreous enamel Vitreous enamel, also called porcelain enamel, is a material made by melting, fusing powdered glass to a substrate by firing, usually between . The powder melts, flows, and then hardens to a smooth, durable vitrification, vitreous coating. The wo ...
, where the glass is melted onto the object, is also done without separating wires. *, a similar technique for dying cloth, with pools of dye between ridges of temporary resist paste


Notes


References

*Bàràny-Oberschall, Magda de, "Localization of the Enamels of the Upper Hemisphere of the Holy Crown of Hungary", ''The Art Bulletin'', Vol. 31, No. 2 (Jun., 1949), pp. 121–126, *Campbell, Marian. ''An Introduction to Medieval Enamels'', 1983, Office of Public Sector Information, HMSO for V&A Museum, *Carpenter, Woodrow, ''Cloisonné Primer'', from ''Glass on Metal, the Enamellist's Magazine'', June 1995
online
*Clark, Grahame, ''Symbols of Excellence: Precious Materials as Expressions of Status'', Cambridge University Press, 1986, ,
Google Books
* Cosgrove, Maynard Giles, ''The enamels of China and Japan, champlevé and cloisonné'', London, Hale, 1974. *Dillon, Michael, ''China: a historical and cultural dictionary'', Routledge, 1998, ,
Google books
* *Gardner's Art Through the Ages

*Green: Charles Green (archaeologist), Charles Green, Barbara Green, ''Sutton Hoo: the excavation of a royal ship-burial'', 2nd Edition, Seafarer Books, 1988, ,
Google books
*Harden, Donald B., ''Dark-age Britain'', Taylor & Francis, 1956 *''Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world'', various authors, Harvard University Press reference library, Harvard University Press, 1999, ,
Google books
*Kırmızı Burcu, Colomban Philippe, Béatrice Quette, ''On-site Analysis of Chinese Cloisonné Enamels from 15th to 19th century'', Journal of Raman Spectroscopy 41 (2010) 780–790. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jrs.2516/abstract *Peter Lasko, Lasko, Peter, ''Ars Sacra, 800–1200'', Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 1972 (nb, 1st edn.) *Ogden, Jack, "Metal", in ''Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology'', eds. Paul T. Nicholson, Ian Shaw, 2000, Cambridge University Press, , 9780521452571
google books
*Osborne, Harold (ed), ''The Oxford Companion to the Decorative Arts'', 1975, OUP, *Nees, Lawrence, ''Early Medieval Art'', Oxford History of Art, 2002, Oxford UP *Ross, Marvin C., ''Catalogue of the Byzantine and Early Medieval Antiquities: Jewelry, Enamels, and art of the Migration Period'', Dumbarton Oaks, 2006, , 9780884023012
Google books
*Sullivan, Michael, ''The arts of China'', 4th edn, University of California Press, 1999, ,
Google books
*Susan Youngs (ed), ''"The Work of Angels", Masterpieces of Celtic Metalwork, 6th-9th centuries AD'', 1989, British Museum Press, London, *"V&A":


External links


Cloisonné Articles and Tutorials at The Ganoksin Project


Department of Asian Art, in Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–2004
An Interview with Contemporary Enamel Artist Laura Zell Demonstrating Basic Cloisonné Techniques

About TAMURA SHIPPO Cloisonne Enamel

TAMURA SHIPPO
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cloisonne Artistic techniques Chinese art Decorative arts Jewellery making Vitreous enamel