Climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...

is a significant threat to

Madagascar Madagascar (; mg, Madagasikara, ), officially the Republic of Madagascar ( mg, Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, links=no, ; french: République de Madagascar), is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately off the coast of East Africa ...

's environment and people. Climate change has raised temperatures, made the

dry season The dry season is a yearly period of low rainfall, especially in the tropics. The weather in the tropics is dominated by the tropical rain belt, which moves from the northern to the southern tropics and back over the course of the year. The ...

longer and has resulted in more intense tropical storms. The country's unique

ecosystems An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syst ...

animal Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the Kingdom (biology), biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals Heterotroph, consume organic material, Cellular respiration#Aerobic respiration, breathe oxygen, are Motilit ...

and

plant Plants are predominantly Photosynthesis, photosynthetic eukaryotes of the Kingdom (biology), kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all curr ...

life are being impacted. Climate change is projected to drive declines in

coral reefs A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups. Co ...

and forest habitats, and threaten native species such as

lemurs Lemurs ( ) (from Latin ''lemures'' – ghosts or spirits) are wet-nosed primates of the superfamily Lemuroidea (), divided into 8 families and consisting of 15 genera and around 100 existing species. They are endemic to the island of Madaga ...

. The human population is highly

vulnerable Vulnerable may refer to: General * Vulnerability * Vulnerability (computing) * Vulnerable adult * Vulnerable species Music Albums * ''Vulnerable'' (Marvin Gaye album), 1997 * ''Vulnerable'' (Tricky album), 2003 * ''Vulnerable'' (The Used album) ...

due to severe impacts on water and

agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled peop ...

, with implications for

food security Food security speaks to the availability of food in a country (or geography) and the ability of individuals within that country (geography) to access, afford, and source adequate foodstuffs. According to the United Nations' Committee on World F ...

. Infectious diseases are also expected to increase. Madagascar is a signatory to the Paris Agreement and has set out goals for

climate change adaptation Climate change adaptation is the process of adjusting to current or expected effects of climate change.IPCC, 2022Annex II: Glossary öller, V., R. van Diemen, J.B.R. Matthews, C. Méndez, S. Semenov, J.S. Fuglestvedt, A. Reisinger (eds.) InClimat ...

, although their implementation faces challenges due to country's relative poverty.

Effects on the natural environment

Temperature Bar Chart Africa-Madagascar--1901-2020--2021-07-13

is projected to lead to an increase in temperatures for the entire island of

in the 21st century. A 2008 estimate using a

regional climate model Numerical climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate, including atmosphere, oceans, land surface and ice. They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the cl ...

put the increase at 1.1–2.6 °C, varying depending on topography, for the period 2046-2065. The south of Madagascar is projected to warm the most, with the north and coastal areas warming the least. This would have significant impacts for the fragmented eastern forests. Madagascar has the highest risk of cyclones in Africa, experiencing three to four per year. Cyclones are expected become more intense due to climate change but less frequent, greatly impacting the country and increasing

flood A flood is an overflow of water ( or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are an area of study of the discipline hydrol ...

risk. By 2018, the number of violent cyclones with superior wind speeds up to 150 km/h doubled in the prior 25 years. Madagascar's

is becoming longer. Vegetation cover correlates strongly with the

El Niño–Southern Oscillation El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is an irregular periodic variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, affecting the climate of much of the tropics and subtropics. The warming phase of the sea te ...

, with this relationship indicating climate change is likely to further degrade Madagascar's environment. Madagascar's unique wildlife and

flora Flora (: floras or florae) is all the plant life present in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring (indigenous (ecology), indigenous) native plant, native plants. The corresponding term for animals is ''fauna'', and for f ...

are threatened by the changing climate. In a 2008 study, suitable climatic space for nearly all 80

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found els ...

Malagasy plant species was impacted by climate change. Madagascar's forests are projected to be greatly affected during the 21st century.

Lemur Lemurs ( ) (from Latin ''lemures'' – ghosts or spirits) are wet-nosed primates of the superfamily Lemuroidea (), divided into 8 families and consisting of 15 genera and around 100 existing species. They are endemic to the island of Madaga ...

s are also likely to be impacted, with expected severe shifts in

species distribution Species distribution —or species dispersion — is the manner in which a biological taxon is spatially arranged. The geographic limits of a particular taxon's distribution is its range, often represented as shaded areas on a map. Patterns of ...

and by the spread of

parasites Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson ha ...

across a wider distribution with warmer temperatures. Lemur survivorship and fruit production declined in

Ranomafana National Park Ranomafana National Park is in the southeastern part of Madagascar in Haute Matsiatra and Vatovavy. With more than 41,600 hectares (161 square miles) of tropical rainforest, it is home to several rare species of flora and fauna including th ...

between 1960–1985 and 1986–2005, along with winters becoming drier in the park, and

Montane Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is a crucial ...

-endemic

amphibians Amphibians are four-limbed and ectothermic vertebrates of the class Amphibia. All living amphibians belong to the group Lissamphibia. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats, with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arb ...

and reptiles are threatened by higher temperatures. Suitable eastern rainforest habitat for

ruffed lemur The ruffed lemurs of the genus ''Varecia'' are strepsirrhine primates and the largest extant lemurs within the family Lemuridae. Like all living lemurs, they are found only on the island of Madagascar. Formerly considered to be a monotypic genu ...

s is projected to decline considerably due to the interacting impacts of climate change and

deforestation in Madagascar Deforestation in Madagascar is an ongoing environmental issue. Deforestation creates agricultural or pastoral land but can also result in desertification, water resource degradation, biodiversity erosion and habitat loss, and soil loss. It has b ...

. The fecundity and reproduction of the

Milne-Edwards's sifaka Milne-Edwards's sifaka (''Propithecus edwardsi''), or Milne-Edwards's simpona, is a large arboreal, diurnal lemur endemic to the eastern coastal rainforest of Madagascar. Milne-Edwards's sifaka is characterized by a black body with a light-colo ...

is significantly impacted by changes in precipitation and increased cyclones.

Coral reef A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups. C ...

s in Madagascar are likely to decline in the 21st century due to climate change, although deforestation is thought to have a greater impact.

Coral bleaching Coral bleaching is the process when corals become white due to various stressors, such as changes in temperature, light, or nutrients. Bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel the zooxanthellae (dinoflagellates that are commonly referred to as al ...

events are projected to increase and cyclones damage them directly, leading to declines in fish populations and increasing coastal erosion.

Effects on people

Flooding near the Betsiboka River, Madagascar 2010-03-23 lrg

Agriculture in Madagascar Agriculture employs the majority of Madagascar's population. Mainly involving smallholders, agriculture has seen different levels of state organisation, shifting from state control to a liberalized sector. Rice is the main produce and main ex ...

is being affected by climate change, with smallholder farmers extremely

to its impacts. The

effects of climate change on agriculture The effects of climate change on agriculture can result in lower crop yields and nutritional quality due to drought, heat waves and flooding as well as increases in pests and plant diseases. The effects are unevenly distributed across the wo ...

, such as increased drought, greatly threatens Madagascar's population, 80% of which relies on agriculture for livelihood. Heating and flooding has been proposed as driving a decline in farm production between 1990 and 2015. The severe

2021–2022 Madagascar famine In mid-2021, a severe drought in southern Madagascar caused hundreds of thousands of people, with some estimating more than 1 million people, to suffer from food insecurity or famine. Some organizations have attributed the situation to the impac ...

, which followed the worst drought in four decades, has been linked to climate change by the

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmonizi ...

and media commentators, although an attribution study found that "while climate change may have slightly increased the likelihood of this reduced rainfall ver 2019–21 the effect is not statistically significant", with

poverty Poverty is the state of having few material possessions or little income. Poverty can have diverse < ...

, poor infrastructure and high dependence on rain-fed agriculture being primary factors.

Water supply Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. Public water supply systems are crucial to properly functioning societies. T ...

in Madagascar is poor, with a 2018 estimate suggesting that 66% of the population in rural areas and 49% in urban areas lack access to

drinking water Drinking water is water that is used in drink or food preparation; potable water is water that is safe to be used as drinking water. The amount of drinking water required to maintain good health varies, and depends on physical activity level, ...

. Madagascar was facing one of the world's most severe water crises as of 2021 due to poor

water management Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; sligh ...

infrastructure, deforestation,

erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is di ...

and

saltwater intrusion Saltwater intrusion is the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers, which can lead to groundwater quality degradation, including drinking water sources, and other consequences. Saltwater intrusion can naturally occur in coastal aquifers, ...

. Decreases in annual rainfall, increased

evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration (ET) is the combined processes by which water moves from the earth’s surface into the atmosphere. It covers both water evaporation (movement of water to the air directly from soil, canopies, and water bodies) and transpir ...

and

sea level rise Globally, sea levels are rising due to human-caused climate change. Between 1901 and 2018, the globally averaged sea level rose by , or 1–2 mm per year on average.IPCC, 2019Summary for Policymakers InIPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cry ...

are projected to further reduce water availability across much of the country. This includes the capital

Antananarivo Antananarivo ( French: ''Tananarive'', ), also known by its colonial shorthand form Tana, is the capital and largest city of Madagascar. The administrative area of the city, known as Antananarivo-Renivohitra ("Antananarivo-Mother Hill" or "An ...

, where water availability may not be able to meet demand by 2025. Water in Southern Madagascar, where

groundwater Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidat ...

is the primary water source during the dry season, are likely to also be severely affected as water becomes further limited. Climate change also has significant implications for

health Health, according to the World Health Organization, is "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity".World Health Organization. (2006)''Constitution of the World Health Organiza ...

in Madagascar. The incidence of

respiratory infections Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infectious diseases involving the respiratory tract. An infection of this type usually is further classified as an upper respiratory tract infection (URI or URTI) or a lower respiratory tract infection (LRI ...

and

diarrhea Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin ...

is increasing and these, along with

malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or deat ...

and

malnutrition Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is "a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients" which adversely affects the body's tissues ...

, are expected to increase in the 21st century due to climate change. Cholera outbreaks and

have been linked to climate change.

Mitigation and adaptation

Madagascar is a signatory to the Paris Agreement. On average, each Malagasy emits less than 2 tonnes of

greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas (GHG or GhG) is a gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared range, causing the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor (), carbon dioxide (), met ...

(GHG) a year, compared to the global average of over 6 tonnes.

Biomass Biomass is plant-based material used as a fuel for heat or electricity production. It can be in the form of wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms, and households. Some people use the terms biom ...

is the primary source of

energy In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, ''enérgeia'', “activity”) is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of hea ...

, and this use of firewood and charcoal for cooking is contributing to deforestation. Only a fraction of the population have access to electricity, but some

solar power Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic ef ...

has been built, such as Ambatolampy Solar Power Station. In its

nationally determined contribution A nationally determined contribution (NDC) or intended nationally determined contribution (INDC) is a non-binding national plan highlighting climate change mitigation, including climate-related targets for greenhouse gas emission reductions. Thes ...

, with the help of reforestation, the country aims to absorb more GHG than it emits in 2030. President

Andry Rajoelina Andry Nirina Rajoelina (Malagasy: ; born 30 May 1974) is a Malagasy politician and businessman who has been the president of Madagascar since 2019. He was previously president of a provisional government from 2009 to 2014 following a politic ...

urged tougher international action on climate change at the 2021

United Nations General Assembly The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA or GA; french: link=no, Assemblée générale, AG) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN), serving as the main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ of the UN. Cur ...

: Madagascar is a poor country, and

is costly. Protecting the country's unique ecosystems is considered a central adaptation strategy. Proposed measures using conservation in Madagascar include expanding

protected areas Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the ena ...

and generating income by selling

carbon offsets A carbon offset is a reduction or removal of emissions of carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for emissions made elsewhere. Offsets are measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO2e). One ton of carbon ...

for

reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Reduction, reduced, or reduce may refer to: Science and technology Chemistry * Reduction (chemistry), part of a reduction-oxidation (redox) reaction in which atoms have their oxidation state changed. ** Organic redox reaction, a redox reacti ...

(REDD+). However, a government strategy for REDD+ was unclear, as it banned the sale of all

carbon credits A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit a set amount of carbon dioxide or the equivalent amount of a different greenhouse gas (tCO2e). Carbon credits and carbon markets are a compo ...

and moved to nationalise carbon ownership. In 2022, the country was considering selling 1.8 billion tonnes of carbon offsets under the

World Bank The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of low- and middle-income countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects. The World Bank is the collective name for the Inte ...

's Forest Carbon Partnership Facility.

Mangrove restoration Mangrove restoration is the regeneration of mangrove forest ecosystems in areas where they have previously existed. The practice of mangrove restoration is grounded in the discipline of restoration ecology, which aims to “ ssistthe recovery of ...

is another proposed strategy to adapt to sea level rise. Building

climate resilience Climate resilience is defined as the "capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a hazardous event or trend or disturbance".IPCC, 2022Summary for Policymakers .-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, ...

in the population can be achieved through reducing poverty and improving water access and infrastructure, particularly in rural areas. At

COP26 The 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, more commonly referred to as COP26, was the 26th United Nations Climate Change conference, held at the SEC Centre in Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom, from 31 October to 13 November 2021. The ...

, environment minister Baomiavotse Vahinala Raharinirina called for $100bn in

climate finance Climate finance is "finance that aims at reducing emissions, and enhancing sinks of greenhouse gases and aims at reducing vulnerability of, and maintaining and increasing the resilience of, human and ecological systems to negative climate change ...

from rich countries to poorer countries like Madagascar to implement adaptation measures, highlighting a proposed water pipeline from the north to the south of the island requiring funding.

References

External links

Madagascar
at the

Climate Change Knowledge Portal
Madagascar
at LDC Climate Change
Madagascar Climate Change
at

Our World in Data Our World in Data (OWID) is a scientific online publication that focuses on large global problems such as poverty, disease, hunger, climate change, war, existential risks, and inequality. It is a project of the Global Change Data Lab, a r ...

Health and climate change country profile: Madagascar
at the

WHO Who or WHO may refer to: * Who (pronoun), an interrogative or relative pronoun * Who?, one of the Five Ws in journalism * World Health Organization Arts and entertainment Fictional characters * Who, a creature in the Dr. Seuss book ''Horton Hear ...

{{Madagascar topics

Environmental issues in Madagascar

Effects on the natural environment

Effects on people

Mitigation and adaptation

See also

References

External links