Clerofascism

Clerical fascism (also clero-fascism or clerico-fascism) is an ideology that combines the political and economic doctrines of fascism with clericalism. The term has been used to describe organizations and movements that combine religious elements with fascism, receive support from religious organizations which espouse sympathy for fascism, or fascist regimes in which clergy play a leading role.

When coined in 1920s Italy, the term referred to the political ideology of the Roman Catholic Italian People's Party which supported Benito Mussolini and his fascist regime. The term was also used for Catholics in Northern Italy who advocated a synthesis of Roman Catholicism and fascism.

History

The term ''clerical fascism'' (clero-fascism or clerico-fascism) emerged in the early 1920s in the Kingdom of Italy, referring to the faction of the Roman Catholic Partito Popolare Italiano (PPI) which supported Benito Mussolini and his regime. It was supposedly coined by Don Luigi Sturzo, a priest and Christian democrat leader who opposed Mussolini and went into exile in 1924, although the term had also been used before Mussolini's March on Rome in 1922 to refer to Catholics in Northern Italy who advocated a synthesis of Roman Catholicism and fascism.

Sturzo made a distinction between the "filofascists", who left the Catholic PPI in 1921 and 1922, and the "clerical fascists" who stayed in the party after the March on Rome, advocating collaboration with the fascist government. Eventually, the latter group converged with Mussolini, abandoning the PPI in 1923 and creating the Centro Nazionale Italiano. The PPI was disbanded by the fascist regime in 1926.

The term has since been used by scholars seeking to contrast authoritarian-conservative clerical fascism with more radical variants. Christian fascists focus on internal religious politics, such as passing laws and regulations that reflect their view of Christianity. Radicalized forms of Christian fascism or ''clerical fascism'' (clero-fascism or clerico-fascism) were emerging on the far-right of the political spectrum in some European countries during the interwar period in the first half of the 20th century.

Fascist Italy

In 1870, the newly formed Kingdom of Italy annexed the remaining Papal States, depriving the Pope of his temporal power. However, in the 1929 Lateran Treaty, Mussolini recognized the Pope as Sovereign of Vatican City State, and Roman Catholicism became the state religion of Fascist Italy.

In March 1929, a nationwide plebiscite was held to publicly endorse the Lateran Treaty. Opponents were intimidated by the fascist regime: the organisation Catholic Action (''Azione Cattolica'') and Mussolini claimed that "no" votes were of those "few ill-advised anti-clericals who refuse to accept the Lateran Pacts". Nearly nine million Italians voted, or 90 per cent of the registered electorate, with only 136,000 voting "no".

Almost immediately after the signing of the Treaty, relations between Mussolini and the Church soured again. Mussolini "referred to Catholicism as, in origin, a minor sect that had spread beyond Historical Palestine only because grafted onto the organization of the Roman empire."D. M. Smith, 1982, pp. 162–163. After the concordat, "he confiscated more issues of Catholic newspapers in the next three months than in the previous seven years." Mussolini reportedly came close to being excommunicated from the Church around this time.

In 1938, the Italian Racial Laws and ''Manifesto of Race'' were promulgated by the fascist regime to persecute Italian Jews as well as Protestant Christians,; especially Evangelicals and Pentecostals. Thousands of Italian Jews and a small number of Protestants died in the Nazi concentration camps.

Despite Mussolini's close alliance with Hitler's Germany, Italy did not fully adopt Nazism's genocidal ideology towards the Jews. The Nazis were frustrated by the Italian authorities' refusal to co-operate in roundups of Jews, and no Jews were deported prior to the formation of the Italian Social Republic following the Armistice of Cassibile. In the Italian-occupied Independent State of Croatia, German envoy Siegfried Kasche advised Berlin that Italian forces had "apparently been influenced" by Vatican opposition to German anti-Semitism. As anti-Axis feeling grew in Italy, the use of Vatican Radio to broadcast papal disapproval of race murder and anti-Semitism angered the Nazis. When Mussolini and his regime were overthrown in July 1943, the Germans moved to occupy Italy and commenced a roundup of Jews.

Around 4% of Resistance forces were formally Catholic organisations, but Catholics dominated other "independent groups" such as the '' Fiamme Verdi'' and ''Osoppo'' partisans, and there were also Catholic militants in the Garibaldi Brigades, such as Benigno Zaccagnini, who later served as a prominent Christian Democrat politician. In Northern Italy, tensions between Catholics and communists in the movement led Catholics to form the ''Fiamme Verdi'' as a separate brigade of Christian Democrats. After the war, ideological divisions between former partisans re-emerged, becoming a hallmark of post-war Italian politics.

Examples of clerical fascism

Examples of political movements which incorporate certain elements of clerical fascism into their ideologies include:

* the Fatherland Front in Austria led by Austrian Catholic Chancellors Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg.
* the Rexist Party in Belgium led by Léon Degrelle, a Belgian Catholic.
* the Brazilian Integralist Action in Brazil led by Brazilian Catholic Plínio Salgado.
* the Nationalist Liberation Alliance in Argentina led by .
* the Ustaše movement led by Poglavnik and Prime Minister Ante Pavelić in the Independent State of Croatia and its supporters in the Croatian Catholic Church.
* the Lapua Movement and the Patriotic People's Movement (IKL) in Finland led by the Lutherans ( körtti) Vihtori Kosola and Vilho Annala respectively. Pastor Elias Simojoki led the IKL's youth organization the Blue-and-Blacks.
* the German Christians of the Nazi Party in Nazi Germany led by Ludwig Müller which attempted but failed to unify German Protestants during the ''Kirchenkampf''.
* Metaxism and the 4th of August Regime in Greece which was led by Ioannis Metaxas and heavily supported the Greek Orthodox Church.
* the National Synarchist Union in Mexico led by Mexican Catholic José Antonio Urquiza before his assassination in 1938, it was a revival of the Catholic reaction that triggered the Cristero War; midcentury, the movement would become the focus of a conspiracy theory which alleged that it had infiltrated various institutions under the name El Yunque.
* the National Radical Camp led by Boleslaw Piasecki, Henryk Rossman, Tadeusz Gluzinski and Jan Mosdorf which heavily incorporated Polish Catholicism into its ideology, especially the Falangist faction.
* the National Union in Portugal led by Prime Ministers António de Oliveira Salazar and Marcelo Caetano.
* the National-Christian Defense League/Iron Guard of Romania, which was led by the devoutly Romanian Orthodox Corneliu Zelea Codreanu.
* Serbian Action, an ultranationalist and clerical fascistDijana Jelača, Maša Kolanović, Danijela Lugarić
''The Cultural Life of Capitalism in Yugoslavia: (Post)Socialism and Its Other''
/ref> movement, active in Serbia since 2010.
* the Slovak People's Party (Ľudaks) in Slovakia led by President Jozef Tiso, a Catholic priest.
* the FET y de las JONS of Spain led by Spanish Catholic Francisco Franco, which developed into National Catholicism.
* the Silver Legion of America in the United States led by William Dudley Pelley which combined American Christianity (specifically Protestantism) with American white nationalism.
The National Union in Portugal led by Prime Ministers António de Oliveira Salazar and Marcelo Caetano is not considered Fascist by historians such as Stanley G. Payne, Thomas Gerard Gallagher, Juan José Linz, António Costa Pinto, Roger Griffin, Robert Paxton and Howard J. Wiarda, though it is considered Fascist by historians such as Manuel de Lucena, Jorge Pais de Sousa, Manuel Loff, and Hermínio Martins. One of Salazar's actions was to ban the National Syndicalists/Fascists. Salazar distanced himself from fascism and Nazism, which he criticized as a "pagan Caesarism" that did not recognise either legal or moral limits.

Likewise, the Fatherland Front in Austria led by Austrian Catholic Chancellors Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg is often not regarded as a fully fascist party. It has been called semi-Fascist and even imitation Fascist. Dollfuss was murdered by the Nazis, shot in his office by the SS and left to bleed to death. Initially, his regime received support from Fascist Italy, which formed the Stresa Front with the United Kingdom and France.

Use of the term

Scholars who accept the use of the term ''clerical fascism'' debate about which of the listed examples should be dubbed "clerical fascist", with the Ustaše being the most widely included example. In the examples which are cited above, the degree of official Catholic support and the degree of clerical influence over lawmaking and government both vary. Moreover, several authors reject the concept of a ''clerical fascist régime'', arguing that an entire fascist régime does not become "clerical" if elements of the clergy support it, while others are not prepared to use the term "clerical fascism" outside the context of what they call the ''fascist epoch'', between the ends of the two world wars (1918–1945).

Some scholars consider certain contemporary movements forms of clerical fascism, such as Christian Identity and Christian Reconstructionism in the United States; "the most virulent form" of Islamic fundamentalism, Islamism; and militant Hindu nationalism in India.

The political theorist Roger Griffin warns against the "hyperinflation of clerical fascism". According to Griffin, the use of the term "clerical fascism" should be limited to "the peculiar forms of politics that arise when religious clerics and professional theologians are drawn either into collusion with the ''secular'' ideology of fascism (an occurrence particularly common in interwar Europe); or, more rarely, manage to mix a theologically illicit cocktail of deeply held religious beliefs with a fascist commitment to saving the nation or race from decadence or collapse". Griffin adds that "clerical fascism" "should never be used to characterize a political movement or a regime in its entirety, since it can at most be a faction within fascism", while he defines fascism as "a revolutionary, secular variant of ultranationalism bent on the total rebirth of society through human agency".

In the case of the Slovak State, some scholars have rejected the use of the term clerical fascism as a label for the regime and they have particularly rejected the use of the term clerical fascist as a label for Jozef Tiso.

See also

* Alois Hudal
* Catholic Church and Nazi Germany
* Christian Nationalism
* Christofascism
* ''Clerical philosophers''
* Hindutva
* Islamofascism
* Kahanism
* National Union (Italy, 1923)
* Positive Christianity
* Religious nationalism
* Ratlines (World War II aftermath)

References

Bibliography

* Walter K. Andersen. "Bharatiya Janata Party: Searching for the Hindu Nationalist Face", in ''The New Politics of the Right: Neo-Populist Parties and Movements in Established Democracies'', ed. Hans-Georg Betz and Stefan Immerfall (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998), pp. 219–232. ; .
* Stefan Arvidsson. ''Aryan Idols: The Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science''. (University of Chicago Press, 2006). .
* Partha Banerjee, ''In the Belly of the Beast: The Hindu Supremacist RSS and BJP of India'' (Delhi, India: Ajanta, 1998).
*
*
*
* Charles Bloomberg and Saul Dubow, eds., ''Christian-Nationalism and the Rise of the Afrikaner Broederbond in South Africa, 1918–48'' (Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1989).
*
*
*
*
*
* Ainslie T. Embree, "The Function of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh: To Define the Hindu Nation", in ''Accounting for Fundamentalisms, The Fundamentalism Project''. 4th ed. Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby (Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1994), pp. 617–652. .
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Laqueur, Walter (1966). ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future''. New York; Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1997.
* Nicholas M. Nagy-Talavera, ''The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Romania''. Iaşi, Romania and Oxford, England: The Center for Romanian Studies, 2001. .
*
*
*
*
* Walid Phares, ''Lebanese Christian Nationalism: The Rise and Fall of an Ethnic Resistance'' (Boulder, Colorado: L. Rienner, 1995).
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* or
*
*
*
*
*Wolff, Richard J. “The Catholic Church and the Dictatorships in Slovakia and Croatia, 1939–1945.” Records of the American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia 88, no. 1/4 (1977): 3–30. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44210893.
* Various authors, ''‘Clerical Fascism’ in Interwar Europe'', special issue of ''Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions'', Volume 8, Issue 2, 2007.

{{Authority control

1920s neologisms
*
Fascism and religion
Totalitarian ideologies
Fascism