This is a list of different language classification proposals developed for the

Indigenous languages of the Americas The Indigenous languages of the Americas are the languages that were used by the Indigenous peoples of the Americas before the arrival of non-Indigenous peoples. Over a thousand of these languages are still used today, while many more are now e ...

Amerindian languages The Indigenous languages of the Americas are the languages that were used by the Indigenous peoples of the Americas before the arrival of non-Indigenous peoples. Over a thousand of these languages are still used today, while many more are now e ...

. The article is divided into North, Central, and South America sections; however, the classifications do not correspond to these divisions.

North America

''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019)

Glottolog ''Glottolog'' is an open-access online bibliographic database of the world's languages. In addition to listing linguistic materials ( grammars, articles, dictionaries) describing individual languages, the database also contains the most up-to-d ...

'' 4.1 (2019) recognizes 42 independent families and 31 isolates in North America (73 total). The vast majority are (or were) spoken in the United States, with 26 families and 26 isolates (52 total). ;North American languages families proposed in ''

'' 4.1 ;Families (42) #

Otomanguean The Oto-Manguean or Otomanguean () languages are a large family comprising several subfamilies of indigenous languages of the Americas. All of the Oto-Manguean languages that are now spoken are indigenous to Mexico, but the Manguean branch of th ...

(180) #

Arawakan Arawakan (''Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper''), also known as Maipurean (also ''Maipuran, Maipureano, Maipúre''), is a language family that developed among ancient Indigenous peoples in South America. Branch ...

(78) #

Uto-Aztecan The Uto-Aztecan languages are a family of native American languages, consisting of over thirty languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States and Mexico. The name of the language family reflects the common ...

(69) #

Algic The Algic languages (also Algonquian–Wiyot–Yurok or Algonquian–Ritwan) are an indigenous language family of North America. Most Algic languages belong to the Algonquian subfamily, dispersed over a broad area from the Rocky Mountains to ...

(46) # Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit (45) #

Mayan Mayan most commonly refers to: * Maya peoples, various indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica and northern Central America * Maya civilization, pre-Columbian culture of Mesoamerica and northern Central America * Mayan languages, language family spoken ...

(33) #

Chibchan The Chibchan languages (also known as Chibchano) make up a language family indigenous to the Isthmo-Colombian Area, which extends from eastern Honduras to northern Colombia and includes populations of these countries as well as Nicaragua, Costa ...

(27) #

Salishan The Salishan languages ( ), also known as the Salish languages ( ), are a family of languages found in the Pacific Northwest in North America, namely the Canadian province of British Columbia and the American states of Washington, Oregon, Ida ...

(25) # Mixe-Zoque (19) #

Siouan Siouan ( ), also known as Siouan–Catawban ( ), is a language family of North America located primarily in the Great Plains, Ohio and Mississippi valleys and southeastern North America with a few other languages in the east. Name Authors who ...

(18) #

Eskimo–Aleut The Eskaleut ( ), Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages are a language family native to the northern portions of the North American continent, and a small part of northeastern Asia. Languages in the family are indigenous to parts of ...

(12) # Totonacan (12) # Cochimi-Yuman (11) #

Iroquoian The Iroquoian languages () are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America. They are known for their general lack of labial consonants. The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking. As of 2020, almost all surviving I ...

(11) # Miwok-Costanoan (11) #

Kiowa-Tanoan Tanoan ( ), also Kiowa–Tanoan or Tanoan–Kiowa, is a family of languages spoken by indigenous peoples in present-day New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Most of the languages – Tiwa languages, Tiwa (Taos, Picuris, Southern Tiwa), Te ...

(8) #

Muskogean Muskogean ( ; also Muskhogean) is a language family spoken in the Southeastern United States. Members of the family are Indigenous Languages of the Americas. Typologically, Muskogean languages are highly synthetic and agglutinative. One docume ...

(7) #

Pomoan The Pomoan, or Pomo , languages are a small family of seven languages indigenous to northern California spoken by the Pomo people, whose ancestors lived in the valley of the Russian River and the Clear Lake basin. Four languages are extinct, an ...

(7) # Chumashan (6) #

Wakashan Wakashan is a family of languages spoken in British Columbia around and on Vancouver Island, and in the northwestern corner of the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state, on the south side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. As is typical of the Nor ...

(6) #

Caddoan The Caddoan languages are a family of languages native to the Great Plains spoken by tribal groups of the central United States, from present-day North Dakota south to Oklahoma. All Caddoan languages are critically endangered, as the number of sp ...

(5) #

Misumalpan The Misumalpan languages (also Misumalpa or Misuluan) are a small family of languages spoken by different ethnic groups on the east coast of Nicaragua and the Eastern Half of HonduraThe name "Misumalpan" was devised by John Alden Mason and is com ...

(5) #

Sahaptian Sahaptian (also Sahaptianic, Sahaptin, Shahaptian) is a two-language branch of the Plateau Penutian family spoken by Native American peoples in the Columbia Plateau region of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho in the northwestern United States. The ...

(5) # Xincan (5) #

Chinookan The Chinookan languages are a small family of extinct languages spoken in Oregon and Washington along the Columbia River by Chinook peoples. Although the last known native speaker of any Chinookan language died in 2012, the 2009-2013 American C ...

(4) # Huavean (4) #

Maiduan Maiduan (also Maidun, Pujunan) is a small endangered language family of northeastern California. Family division The Maiduan consists of 4 languages: * Maiduan ** Maidu (also known as Maidu proper, Northeastern Maidu, Mountain Maidu) ** C ...

(4) #

Yokutsan Yokuts, formerly known as Mariposa, is an endangered language spoken in the interior of Northern and Central California in and around the San Joaquin Valley by the Yokuts people. The speakers of Yokuts were severely affected by disease, mission ...

(4) #

Kalapuyan Kalapuyan (also Kalapuya) is a small extinct language family that was spoken in the Willamette Valley of Western Oregon, United States. It consists of three languages. The Kalapuya language is currently in a state of revival. Kalapuyan descendan ...

(3) # Shastan (3) # Tequistlatecan (3) #

Tsimshian The Tsimshian (; ) are an Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America. Their communities are mostly in coastal British Columbia in Terrace, British Columbia, Terrace and ...

(3) # Chimakuan (2) #

Coosan Coosan () is a townland and suburb north of Athlone, County Westmeath in Ireland. Coosan, which is situated on the shores of Lough Ree, is surrounded by water on three sides and bordered by Athlone on the fourth. Coosan attracts tourists over t ...

(2) #

Haida Haida may refer to: Haida people Many uses of the word derive from the name of an indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America. * Haida people, an Indigenous ethnic group of North America (Canada) ** Council of the Haida Nati ...

(2) # Jicaquean (2) #

Keresan Keres (), also Keresan (), is a Native American language, spoken by the Keres Pueblo people in New Mexico. Depending on the analysis, Keres is considered a small language family or a language isolate with several dialects. If it is considered a ...

(2) # Lencan (2) # Palaihnihan (2) # Tarascan (2) # Wintuan (2) # Yuki-Wappo (2) ;Isolates (31) # Adai # Alsea-Yaquina #

Atakapa The Atakapa Sturtevant, 659 or Atacapa were an Indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands, who spoke the Atakapa language and historically lived along the Gulf of Mexico in what is now Texas and Louisiana. They included several distinct b ...

Beothuk The Beothuk ( or ; also spelled Beothuck) were a group of Indigenous peoples in Canada, Indigenous people of Canada who lived on the island of Newfoundland (island), Newfoundland. The Beothuk culture formed around 1500 CE. This may have been ...

# Cayuse # Chimariko #

Chitimacha The Chitimacha ( ; or ) are an Indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands in Louisiana. They are a federally recognized tribe, the Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana. The Chitimacha have an Indian reservation in St. Mary Parish near Charento ...

Coahuilteco Coahuilteco was one of the Indigenous languages that was spoken in southern Texas (United States) and northeastern Coahuila (Mexico). It is now extinct, and is typically considered to be a language isolate, but has also been proposed to be part o ...

Comecrudan Comecrudan refers to a group of possibly related languages spoken in the southernmost part of Texas and in northern Mexico along the Rio Grande of which ''Comecrudo'' is the best known. These were spoken by the Comecrudo people. Very little is ...

Cotoname Cotoname is an Indigenous language of Mexico and the American state of Texas formerly spoken by Native Americans indigenous to the lower Rio Grande Valley of northeastern Mexico and extreme southern Texas (United States). Today it is extinct, a ...

# Cuitlatec #

Esselen The Esselen are a Native American people belonging to a linguistic group in the hypothetical Hokan language family, who are Indigenous to the Santa Lucia Mountains of a region south of the Big Sur River in California. Prior to Spanish col ...

# Guaicurian #

Karankawa The Karankawa were an Indigenous people concentrated in southern Texas along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, largely in the lower Colorado River and Brazos River valleys."Karankawa." In ''Cassell's Peoples, Nations and Cultures,'' edited by Joh ...

Karok The Karuk people ()Andrew Garrett, Susan Gehr, Erik Hans Maier, Line Mikkelsen, Crystal Richardson, and Clare Sandy. (November 2, 2021) ''Karuk; To appear in The Languages and Linguistics of Indigenous North America: A Comprehensive Guide (De G ...

# Klamath-Modoc #

Kutenai The Kutenai ( ), also known as the Ktunaxa ( ; ), Ksanka ( ), Kootenay (in Canada) and Kootenai (in the United States), are an indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous people of Canada and the United States. Kutenai bands live in so ...

# Maratino # Molale # Natchez #

Salinan The Salinan are a Native American tribe whose ancestral territory is in the southern Salinas Valley and the Santa Lucia Range in the Central Coast of California. Today, the Salinan governments are now working toward federal tribal recognition ...

Seri Seri, Séri, or SERI may refer to: People *Camille Séri (born 1999), French hurdler *Jean Michaël Seri, an Ivorian professional footballer Places *Seri Yek-e Zarruk, Iran *Seri, Bheri, Nepal *Seri, Karnali, Nepal *Seri, Mahakali, Nepal *Seri ...

# Siuslaw #

Takelma The Takelma (also Dagelma) are a Native American people who originally lived in the Rogue Valley of interior southwestern Oregon. Most of their villages were sited along the Rogue River. The name ''Takelma'' means "(Those) Along the River". H ...

Timucua The Timucua were a Native American people who lived in Northeast and North Central Florida and southeast Georgia. They were the largest indigenous group in that area and consisted of about 35 chiefdoms, many leading thousands of people. The va ...

Tonkawa The Tonkawa are a Native American tribe from Oklahoma and Texas. Their Tonkawa language, now extinct language, extinct, is a linguistic isolate. Today, Tonkawa people are enrolled in the Federally recognized tribes, federally recognized Tonkawa ...

# Tunica # Washo #

Yana Yana may refer to: Locations *Yana, Burma, a village in Hkamti Township in Hkamti District in the Sagaing Region of northwestern Burma * Yana, India, a village in the Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, India * Yana, Nigeria, an administrative c ...

Yuchi The Yuchi people are a Native American tribe based in Oklahoma, though their original homeland was in the southeastern United States. In the 16th century, the Yuchi lived in the eastern Tennessee River valley. By the late 17th century, they had ...

# Zuni

Gallatin (1836)

An early attempt at North American language classification was attempted by A. A. Albert Gallatin published in 1826, 1836, and 1848. Gallatin's classifications are missing several languages which are later recorded in the classifications by Daniel G. Brinton and

John Wesley Powell John Wesley Powell (March 24, 1834 – September 23, 1902) was an American geologist, U.S. Army soldier, explorer of the American West, professor at Illinois Wesleyan University, and director of major scientific and cultural institutions. He ...

. (Gallatin supported the assimilation of indigenous peoples to Euro-American culture.) : (Current terminology is indicated parenthetically in ''italics''.) Families # Algonkin-Lenape '' (= Algonquian)'' # Athapascas '' (=

Athabaskan Athabaskan ( ; also spelled ''Athabascan'', ''Athapaskan'' or ''Athapascan'', and also known as Dene) is a large branch of the Na-Dene language family of North America, located in western North America in three areal language groups: Northern, ...

)'' # Catawban '' (= Catawba + Woccons)'' # Eskimaux '' (=

Eskimoan The Eskaleut ( ), Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages are a language family native to the northern portions of the North American continent, and a small part of northeastern Asia. Languages in the family are indigenous to parts of ...

)'' # Iroquois '' (= Northern Iroquoian)'' # Cherokees '' (= Southern Iroquoian)'' # Muskogee '' (= Eastern Muskogean)'' # Chahtas '' (= Western Muskogean)'' # Sioux '' (=

)'' Languages

Gallatin (1848)

Families #

Algonquian languages The Algonquian languages ( ; also Algonkian) are a family of Indigenous languages of the Americas and most of the languages in the Algic language family are included in the group. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from ...

Athabaskan languages Athabaskan ( ; also spelled ''Athabascan'', ''Athapaskan'' or ''Athapascan'', and also known as Dene) is a large branch of the Na-Dene languages, Na-Dene language family of North America, located in western North America in three areal language ...

Catawban languages The Eastern Siouan branch consists of various historical languages spoken by Siouan peoples of the Appalachian Plateau and Piedmont regions of present-day Virginia and the Carolinas. These languages are sometimes collectively referred to as Cataw ...

Eskimoan languages The Eskaleut ( ), Eskimo–Aleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages are a language family native to the northern portions of the North American continent, and a small part of northeastern Asia. Languages in the family are indigenous to parts of ...

Iroquoian languages The Iroquoian languages () are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America. They are known for their general lack of labial consonants. The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking. As of 2020, almost all surviving I ...

(Northern) #

(Southern) #

Muskogean languages Muskogean ( ; also Muskhogean) is a language family spoken in the Southeastern United States. Members of the family are Indigenous Languages of the Americas. Typologically, Muskogean languages are highly synthetic and agglutinative. One documen ...

Siouan languages Siouan ( ), also known as Siouan–Catawban ( ), is a language family of North America located primarily in the Great Plains, Ohio and Mississippi valleys and southeastern North America with a few other languages in the east. Name Authors who ...

Languages

Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"

, an explorer who served as director of the

Bureau of American Ethnology The Bureau of American Ethnology (or BAE, originally, Bureau of Ethnology) was established in 1879 by an act of Congress for the purpose of transferring archives, records and materials relating to the Indians of North America from the Departme ...

, published a classification of 58 "

stocks Stocks are feet and hand restraining devices that were used as a form of corporal punishment and public humiliation. The use of stocks is seen as early as Ancient Greece, where they are described as being in use in Solon's law code. The law de ...

" that is the "cornerstone" of genetic classifications in North America. Powell's classification was influenced by Gallatin to a large extent. John Wesley Powell was in a race with Daniel G. Brinton to publish the first comprehensive classification of North America languages (although Brinton's classification also covered South and Central America). As a result of this competition, Brinton was not allowed access to the linguistic data collected by Powell's fieldworkers. : ''(More current names are indicated parenthetically.)''

Rivet (1924)

Paul Rivet Paul Rivet (; 7 May 1876 – 21 March 1958) was a French ethnologist known for founding the Musée de l'Homme in 1937. In his professional work, Rivet is known for his theory that South America was originally populated in part by migrants ...

(1924) lists a total of 46 independent language families in North and Central America. Olive and Janambre are extinct languages of

Tamaulipas Tamaulipas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tamaulipas, is a state in Mexico; one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 43 municipalities. It is located in nor ...

Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...

. ;North American families # Algonkin #''

'' #

Eskimo ''Eskimo'' () is a controversial Endonym and exonym, exonym that refers to two closely related Indigenous peoples: Inuit (including the Alaska Native Iñupiat, the Canadian Inuit, and the Greenlandic Inuit) and the Yupik peoples, Yupik (or Sibe ...

# Hoka # Iroquois (Irokwa) #'' Kaddo'' #''

Keres In Greek mythology, the Keres (; Ancient Greek: Κῆρες) were female death-spirits. They were the goddesses who personified violent death and who were drawn to bloody deaths on battlefields. Although they were present during death and dyin ...

'' #''

Kiowa Kiowa ( ) or Cáuigú () people are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American tribe and an Indigenous people of the Great Plains of the United States. They migrated southward from western Montana into the Rocky Mountains in Colora ...

'' #'' Klamath'' #''

'' # Muskhogi #

Na-Dene Na-Dene ( ; also Nadene, Na-Dené, Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit, Tlina–Dene) is a family of Native American languages that includes at least the Athabaskan languages, Eyak, and Tlingit languages. Haida was formerly included but is now general ...

# Penutia #

Sahaptin The Sahaptin are a number of Native American tribes who speak dialects of the Sahaptin language. The Sahaptin tribes inhabited territory along the Columbia River and its tributaries in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Sahaptin- ...

Salish Salish () may refer to: * Salish peoples, a group of First Nations/Native Americans ** Coast Salish peoples, several First Nations/Native American groups in the coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest ** Interior Salish peoples, several First Na ...

# Siou (Syu) # Tano #'' Timukua'' #''

Chimakum The Chemakum, also spelled Chimakum and Chimacum, Native American people (known to themselves as Aqokúlo and sometimes called the Port Townsend Indians), were a group of Native Americans who lived in the northeastern portion of the Olympic Peni ...

'' #'' Tunika'' # Uto-Azten #''

Waiilatpu Whitman Mission National Historic Site is a United States National Historic Site located just west of Walla Walla, Washington, at the site of the former Whitman Mission at Waiilatpu. On November 29, 1847, Dr. Marcus Whitman, his wife Narcissa W ...

'' # Wakash #'' Yuki'' #''

'' #'' Zuñi'' ;Central American families #'' Amusgo'' #'' Kuikatec'' #'' Kuitlatek'' #

Lenka Lenka Eden Kripac (born 19 March 1978) is an Australian singer-songwriter and actress best known for her song " The Show", from her debut album, ''Lenka''. "The Show" has been used in numerous advertisements, most notably for Old Navy, as well ...

Maya Maya may refer to: Ethnic groups * Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America ** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples ** Mayan languages, the languages of the Maya peoples * Maya (East Africa), a p ...

# Miskito-Sumo-Matagalpa # Mixe-Zoke # Mixtek #''

Olive The olive, botanical name ''Olea europaea'' ("European olive"), is a species of Subtropics, subtropical evergreen tree in the Family (biology), family Oleaceae. Originating in Anatolia, Asia Minor, it is abundant throughout the Mediterranean ...

'' #

Otomi The Otomi (; ) are an Indigenous people of Mexico inhabiting the central Mexican Plateau (Altiplano) region. The Otomi are an Indigenous people of the Americas who inhabit a discontinuous territory in central Mexico. They are linguistically rel ...

#''Paya language, Paya'' #''Subtiaba language, Subtiaba'' #''Purepecha language, Tarask (Michoacano)'' #Totonacan languages, Totonak #Chinantecan languages, Chinantek #''Waikuri language, Waїkuri'' #''Janambre language, Xanambre (Janambre)'' #Jicaque languages, Xikake (Jicaque) #Xincan languages, Xinka (Jinca, Sinca) #Zapotecan languages, Zapotek

Sapir (1929): ''Encyclopædia Britannica''

Below is Edward Sapir's (1929) famous ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' classification. Note that Sapir's classification was controversial at the time and it additionally was an original proposal (unusual for general encyclopedias). Sapir was part of a "lumper (taxonomy), lumper" movement in Native American language classification. Sapir himself writes of his classification: "A more far-reaching scheme than Powell's [1891 classification], suggestive but not demonstrable in all its features at the present time" (Sapir 1929: 139). Sapir's classifies all the languages in North America into only 6 families:

, Algonkin–Wakashan languages, Algonkin–Wakashan,

, Penutian languages, Penutian, Hokan languages, Hokan–

, and Aztec–Tanoan languages, Aztec–Tanoan. Sapir's classification (or something derivative) is still commonly used in general languages-of-the-world type surveys. (Note that the question marks that appear in Sapir's list below are present in the original article.) : "Proposed Classification of American Indian Languages North of Mexico (and Certain Languages of Mexico and Central America)"

Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964

The Voegelin & Voegelin (1965) classification was the result of a conference of Americanist linguists held at Indiana University in 1964. This classification identifies 16 main genetic units. Chumashan, Comecrudan languages, Comecrudan, and Coahuiltecan languages, Coahuiltecan are included in Hokan with "reservations".

is included in Hokan languages, Hokan with "strong reservations".

and Zuni are included in Penutian languages, Penutian with reservations.

Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"

Campbell & Mithun's 1979 classification is more conservative, since it insists on more rigorous demonstration of genetic relationship before grouping. Thus, many of the speculative phyla of previous authors are "split".

Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), Mithun (1999)

(preliminary) Families #

## Algonquian ## Wiyot language, Wiyot (> Ritwan?) ## Yurok language, Yurok (> Ritwan?) #

## Eyak-Athabaskan languages, Eyak-Athabaskan ### Eyak language, Eyak ###

## Tlingit language, Tlingit #

(> Macro-Siouan languages, Macro-Siouan?) # Chimakuan #

(> Penutian languages, Penutian?) # Chumashan [chúmash] # Comecrudan languages, Comecrudan #

[kus] (> Penutian languages, Coast Penutian?) #

## Aleut language, Aleut = Unangan #

[kalapúyan] # Kiowa–Tanoan languages, Kiowa–Tanoan #

# Palaihnihan (Achumawi–Atsugewi) #

# Shastan # Siouan–Catawban languages, Siouan–Catawban ## Western Siouan languages, Siouan ## Catawban languages, Catawban # Tsimshianic languages, Tsimshianic # Utian languages, Utian ## Miwok languages, Miwok ## Costanoan languages, Costanoan # Utaztecan languages, Utaztecan ## Numic languages, Numic = Plateau ## Tübatulabal language, Tübatulabal = Kern ## Takic languages, Takic = Southern California ## Hopi language, Hopi = Pueblo ## Tepiman languages, Tepiman = Pimic ## Taracahitic languages, Taracahitic ## Tubar language, Tubar ## Corachol languages, Corachol ## Aztecan languages, Aztecan #

## Kwakiutl language, Kwakiutlan ## Nootka language, Nootkan # Wintuan (> Penutian languages, Coast Penutian?) #

# Yuman–Cochimi languages, Yuman–Cochimi ## Yuman languages, Yuman ## Cochimi language, Cochimi Isolates # Adai # Alsea language, Alsea [alsi] (> Penutian languages, Coast Penutian?) #

(> Tunican languages, Tunican?) #

(unclassifiable?) # Cayuse # Chimariko #

(> Tunican languages, Tunican?) #

= Carrizo de Camargo #

# Haida language, Haida #

# Karok language, Karuk #

# Klamath-Modoc # Kootenai language, Kootenai # Molala language, Molala # Natchez #

# Siuslaw (> Penutian languages, Coast Penutian?) #

# Tunica (> Tunican languages, Tunican?) # Wappo language, Wappo (> Yuki–Wappo languages, Yuki–Wappo) # Washo #

) # Yuki language, Yuki (> Yuki–Wappo languages, Yuki–Wappo) # Zuni Stocks * Yuki–Wappo languages, Yuki–Wappo, supported by Elmendorf (1981, 1997) The unity of Penutian languages outside Mexico is considered probable by many linguists: * Penutian languages, Penutian # Tsimshianic languages, Tsimshianic #

# Kalapuya language, Kalapuya (not close to

: Tarpent & Kendall 1998) # Maidun language, Maidun # Oregon Coast Penutian languages, Oregon Coast-Wintu (Whistler 1977, Golla 1997) ## Alsea language, Alsea ##

## Siuslaw ## Wintuan # Plateau Penutian languages, Plateau ##

## Klamath ## Molala language, Molala ## Cayuse ? (poor data) # Yok-Utian languages, Yok-Utian ? ## Yokuts language, Yana ## Utian languages, Yana Siouan–Yuchi "probable"; Macro-Siouan languages, Macro-Siouan likely: * Macro-Siouan languages, Macro-Siouan # Iroquoian–Caddoan ## Iroquoian language, Iroquoian ## Caddoan language, Caddoan # Siouan–Yuchi languages, Siouan–Yuchi ## Siouan–Catawban languages, Siouan–Catawban ##

Natchez–Muskogean most likely of the Gulf languages, Gulf hypothesis * Natchez–Muskogean languages, Natchez–Muskogean # Natchez #

Hokan: most promising proposals * Hokan languages, Hokan # Karuk language, Karok # Chimariko # Shastan # Palaihnihan #

# Washo #

# Yuman–Cochimi languages, Yuman–Cochimi #

"Unlikely" to be Hokan: : Chumashan :

Subtiaba–Tlapanec languages, Subtiaba–Tlapanec is likely part of

(Rensch 1977, Oltrogge 1977). Aztec–Tanoan languages, Aztec–Tanoan is "undemonstrated"; Mosan languages, Mosan is a Sprachbund.

Mesoamerica

(Consensus conservative classification) Families *

(Other branches outside Mesoamerica. See North America) languages :# Corachol languages, Corachol (Cora–Huichol) :# Aztecan languages, Aztecan (Nahua–Pochutec) * Totonac–Tepehua languages, Totonac–Tepehua *

:# Oto-Pamean languages, Otopamean :# Popolocan languages, Popolocan–Mazatecan languages, Mazatecan :# Subtiaba–Tlapanec languages, Subtiaba–Tlapanec :# Amuzgo language, Amuzgo :# Mixtecan languages, Mixtecan :# Chatino language, Chatino–Zapotecan languages, Zapotec :# Chinantecan languages, Chinantec :# Chiapanec language, Chiapanec–Mangue language, Mangue (extinct) * Tequistlatecan languages, Tequistlatec-Jicaquean languages, Jicaque * Mixe–Zoque languages, Mixe–Zoque *

(Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America) *

(Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America) :# Paya language, Paya Isolates * Purépecha language, Purépecha * Cuitlatec (extinct) * Huave languages, Huave * Xincan languages, Xinca (extinct) * Lencan languages, Lenca (extinct) Proposed stocks * Hokan languages, Hokan (see North America) :# Tequistlatecan languages, Tequistlatec-Jicaquean languages, Jicaque * Macro-Mayan languages, Macro-Mayan (Penutian languages, Penutian affiliation now considered doubtful.) :# Totonac–Tepehua languages, Totonac–Tepehua :# Huave languages, Huave :# Mixe–Zoque languages, Mixe–Zoque :#

* Macro-Chibchan languages, Macro-Chibchan :#

:# Paya language, Paya (sometimes placed in

proper) :# Xincan languages, Xinca :# Lencan languages, Lenca

South America

Notable early classifications of classifications of indigenous South American language families include those by Filippo Salvatore Gilii (1780–84),Gilij, Filippo Salvatore. 1965. ''Ensayo de historia Americana''. Spanish translation by Antonio Tovar. (Fuentes para la Historia Colonial de Venezuela, Volumes 71–73.) Caracas: Biblioteca de la Academia Nacional de la Historia. First published as Saggio di storia americana; o sia, storia naturale, civile e sacra de regni, e delle provincie spagnuole di Terra-Ferma nell’ America Meridionale descritto dall’ abate F. S. Gilij. Rome: Perigio [1780–1784]. Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro (1784–87),Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo. 1784–87. ''Idea dell’universo: che contiene la storia della vita dell’uomo, elementi cosmografici, viaggio estatico al mondo planetario, e storia de la terra e delle lingue''. Cesena: Biasini.Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo. 1800–1805. ''Catálogo de las lenguas de las naciones conocidas y numeracion, division, y clases de estas segun la diversidad de sus idiomas y dialectos'', Volume I (1800): ''Lenguas y naciones Americanas''. Madrid: Administracion del Real Arbitrio de Beneficencia. Daniel Garrison Brinton (1891),Brinton, Daniel G. 1891. ''The American race''. New York: D. C. Hodges.

(1924),Rivet, Paul. 1924. Langues Américaines III: Langues de l’Amérique du Sud et des Antilles. In: Antoine Meillet and Marcel Cohen (ed.), ''Les Langues du Monde'', Volume 16, 639–712. Paris: Collection Linguistique. John Alden Mason (1950),Mason, J. Alden. 1950. The languages of South America. In: Julian Steward (ed.), ''Handbook of South American Indians'', Volume 6, 157–317. (Smithsonian Institution,

Bulletin 143.) Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. and Čestmír Loukotka (1968). Other classifications include those of Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño (1940–45),Jijón y Caamaño, Jacinto. 1998. ''El Ecuador interandino y occidental antes de la conquista castellana''. Quito: Abya-Yala. First published Quito: Editorial Ecuatoriana [1940–1945]. Antonio Tovar (1961; 1984),Tovar, Antonio. 1961. ''Catálogo de las lenguas de América del Sur: enumeración, con indicaciones tipológicas, bibliografía y mapas''. Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana.Tovar, Antonio and Consuelo Larrucea de Tovar. 1984. ''Catálogo de las lenguas de América del Sur''. Madrid: Gredos. and Jorge A. Suárez (1974).Suárez, Jorge. 1974. South American Indian languages. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 15th edition, Macropaedia 17. 105–112.

''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019)

'' 4.1 (2019) recognizes 44 independent families and 64 isolates in South America. ;South American languages families proposed in ''

'' 4.1 ;Families (44) #

(78) #Tupian languages, Tupian (71) #Pano-Tacanan languages, Pano-Tacanan (45) #Quechuan languages, Quechuan (45) #Cariban languages, Cariban (42) #

(33) #Nuclear-Macro-Je languages, Nuclear-Macro-Je (30) #

(27) #Tucanoan languages, Tucanoan (26) #Chapacuran languages, Chapacuran (12) #Chocoan languages, Chocoan (9) #Huitotoan languages, Huitotoan (7) #Matacoan languages, Matacoan (7) #Arawan languages, Arawan (6) #Barbacoan languages, Barbacoan (6) #Nambiquaran languages, Nambiquaran (6) #Zaparoan languages, Zaparoan (6) #Guahiboan languages, Guahiboan (5) #Guaicuruan languages, Guaicuruan (5) #Lengua-Mascoy languages, Lengua-Mascoy (5) #Yanomamic languages, Yanomamic (5) #Aymaran languages, Aymaran (4) #Chicham languages, Chicham (4) #Chonan languages, Chonan (4) #Jodi-Saliban languages, Jodi-Saliban (4) #Kamakanan languages, Kamakanan (4) #Naduhup languages, Naduhup (4) #Bororoan languages, Bororoan (3) #Cahuapanan languages, Cahuapanan (3) #Charruan languages, Charruan (3) #Kawesqar languages, Kawesqar (3) #Peba-Yagua languages, Peba-Yagua (3) #Zamucoan languages, Zamucoan (3) #Araucanian languages, Araucanian (2) #Boran languages, Boran (2) #Harakmbut languages, Harakmbut (2) #Hibito-Cholon languages, Hibito-Cholon (2) #Huarpean languages, Huarpean (2) #Kakua-Nukak languages, Kakua-Nukak (2) #Katukinan languages, Katukinan (2) #Otomaco-Taparita languages, Otomaco-Taparita (2) #Puri-Coroado languages, Puri-Coroado (2) #Ticuna-Yuri languages, Ticuna-Yuri (2) #Uru-Chipaya languages, Uru-Chipaya (2) ;Isolates (64) #Aewa language, Aewa #Aikanã language, Aikanã #Andaqui language, Andaqui #Andoque language, Andoque #Arutani language, Arutani #Atacame language, Atacame #Betoi-Jirara language, Betoi-Jirara #Camsá language, Camsá #Candoshi-Shapra language, Candoshi-Shapra #Canichana language, Canichana #Cayubaba language, Cayubaba #Chiquitano language, Chiquitano #Chono language, Chono #Cofán language, Cofán #Culli language, Culli #Fulniô language, Fulniô #Guachi language, Guachi #Guamo language, Guamo #Guató language, Guató #Irántxe-Münkü language, Irántxe-Münkü #Itonama language, Itonama #Jirajaran language, Jirajaran #Kanoê language, Kanoê #Kariri language, Kariri #Kunza language, Kunza #Kwaza language, Kwaza #Leco language, Leco #Lule language, Lule #Jukude language, Máku #Matanawí language, Matanawí #Mato Grosso Arára language, Mato Grosso Arára #Mochica language, Mochica #Mosetén-Chimané language, Mosetén-Chimané #Movima language, Movima #Muniche language, Muniche #Mure language, Mure #Omurano language, Omurano #Oti language, Oti #Páez language, Páez #Pankararú language, Pankararú #Payagua language, Payagua #Pirahã language, Pirahã #Puelche language, Puelche #Puinave language, Puinave #Pumé language, Pumé #Puquina language, Puquina #Ramanos language, Ramanos #Sapé language, Sapé #Sechuran language, Sechuran #Tallán language, Tallán #Taruma language, Taruma #Taushiro language, Taushiro #Timote-Cuica language, Timote-Cuica #Tinigua language, Tinigua #Trumai language, Trumai #Tuxá language, Tuxá #Urarina language, Urarina #Vilela language, Vilela #Waorani language, Waorani #Warao language, Warao #Xukurú language, Xukurú #Yámana language, Yámana #Yuracaré language, Yuracaré #Yurumanguí language, Yurumanguí

Rivet (1924)

(1924) lists 77 independent language families of South America.

Mason (1950)

Classification of South American languages by J. Alden Mason (1950): ;

* Western ** Talamanca languages, Talamanca ** Barbacoa languages, Barbacoa *** Pasto language, Pasto *** Cayapa language, Cayapa-Tsafiki language, Colorado ** Guatuso language, Guatuso ** Guna language, Cuna * Pacific ** Guaymí language, Isthmian (Guaymí) ** Colombian * Inter-Andine ** Páez language, Páez ** Coconuco language, Coconuco ** Popayan language, Popayanense * Eastern ** Chibcha language, Cundinamarca ** Arhuaco language, Arhuaco ** Votic languages, Central America ** ? Andaquí language, Andakí (Andaquí) ** ? Betoi language, Betoi group ;Languages probably of Chibchan affinities * Panzaleo language, Panzaleo * Cara language, Cara, Caranki language, Caranki * Quijo language, Kijo (Quijo) *

* Cofán language, Cofán (Kofane) ;Languages of doubtful Chibchan relationships * Coche language, Coche (Mocoa) * Esmeralda language, Esmeralda * Tairona language, Tairona, Chimila language, Chimila * Yurumanguí language, Yurumanguí * Timote language, Timote * Candoshi language, Candoshi, Chirino language, Chirino, Murato language, Murato * Cholón language, Cholón * Hibito language, Híbito * Copallén language, Copallén * Aconipa language, Aconipa (Akonipa) ;Language families of central South America * Yunca-Puruhán ** Yunca language, Yunca ** Puruhá language, Puruhá ** Cañari language, Cañari (Canyari) ** Atalán language, Atalán ** Sechura language, Sec (Sechura, Tallán) * Kechumaran languages, Kechumaran ** Quechua language, Quechua ** Aymara language, Aymara * Chiquitano language, Chiquitoan * Macro-Guaicuruan languages, Macro-Guaicuruan ** Matacoan languages, Mataco-Macá *** Mataco language, Mataco *** Macá language, Macá (Enimagá, Cochaboth) ** Guaicurú languages, Guaicurú (Waicurú) * Lule-Vilelan languages, Lule-Vilelan ** Tonocoté language, Tonocoté, Matará language, Matará, Guacará language, Guacará ;

* Chané language, Chané, Chaná language, Chaná ;Languages of probable Arawakan affinities * Arawan languages, Arauá group * Apolista language, Apolista (Lapachu) * Amuesha language, Amuesha * Tikuna language, Tucuna (Tikuna) * Taruma language, Tarumá * Tacana language, Tacana ;Languages of possible Arawakan relationships * Tuyuneri language, Tuyuneri * Jirajara language, Jirajara * Jívaro languages, Jívaro * Uru-Chipaya languages, Uru-Chipaya-Pukina language, Pukina ** Ochosuma language, Ochosuma ** Chango, Uru language, Coast Uru ;Cariban languages, Cariban ;Languages of probable Cariban affiliations * Chocó languages, Chocó, Cariban of Colombia * Peba-Yagua languages, Peba-Yagua ** Arda language, Arda * Yuma language, Yuma * Palmella language, Palmella * Yuri language (Amazon), Yuri (Juri) * Pimenteira language, Pimenteira ;Macro-Tupí-Guaranian * Tupí-Guaranian languages, Tupí-Guaranian ** Yurimagua language, Yurimagua (Zurimagua) * Arikem language, Arikem * Boran languages, Miranyan (Boran) * Witotoan languages, Witotoan ** Nonuya language, Nonuya ** Muenane language, Muenane ** Fitita language, Fitita ** Orejón language, Orejón ** Coeruna language, Coeruna ** Andoke language, Andoke ** Resigero language, Resigero * Zaparoan languages, Záparoan ** Omurano language, Omurano (Roamaina?) ** Waorani language, Sabela ** Canelo language, Canelo ** Awishira language, Awishira ;Northern tropical lowland independent families * Warao language, Warrauan * Auaké language, Auakéan * Kaliana language, Calianan * Jukude language, Macuan * Shiriana language, Shirianán * Sáliba language, Sálivan, Wirö language, Macu, Piaroa language, Piaróa * Pamigua language, Pamigua, Tinigua language, Tinigua * Otomacoan languages, Otomacan, Guamo language, Guamo (Guama), Yaruro language, Yaruran * Guahiban language, Guahiban * Puinavean language, Puinavean (Macú) * Tucanoan languages, Tucanoan (Betoyan) ** Orejón language, Coto * Cahuapanan languages, Cahuapanan ** Muniche language, Muniche * Panoan languages, Panoan ** Chama languages ** Cashibo language, Cashibo ** Mayoruna language, Mayoruna ** Itucale language, Itucale, Simacu language, Simacu, Urarina language, Urarina ** Aguano language, Aguano ** Chamicuro language, Chamicuro ;Southern tropical lowland independent families * Unclassified languages of Eastern Perú: Alon language, Alon, Amasifuin language, Amasifuin, Carapacho language, Carapacho, Cascoasoa language, Cascoasoa, Chedua language, Chedua, Cholto language, Cholto, Chunanawa language, Chunanawa, Chusco language, Chusco, Cognomona language, Cognomona, Chupacho language, Chupacho, Huayana language, Huayana, Kikidcana language, Kikidcana (Quiquidcana), Moyobamba language, Moyo-pampa, Nindaso language, Nindaso, Nomona language, Nomona, Pantahua language, Pantahua, Payanso language, Payanso, Tepqui language, Tepqui, Tingan language, Tingan, Tulumayo language, Tulumayo, Zapazo language, Zapazo * Small "families" of Bolivia: Itonama language, Itonama, Canichana language, Canichana, Cayuvava language, Cayuvava, Movima language, Movima, Moseten language, Moseten, Leco language, Leco, Yuracare language, Yuracare * Small languages of the Brazil-Bolivia border: Huari language, Huari, Masáca language, Masáca, Capishaná language, Capishaná, Puruborá language, Puruborá, Mashubi language, Mashubi, Kepikiriwat language, Kepikiriwat, Sanamaicá language, Sanamaicá, Tuparí language, Tuparí, Guaycarú language, Guaycarú, Aricapu language, Aricapu, Yaputi language, Yaputi, Aruashí language, Aruashí, Canoa language, Canoa * Catukinan languages, Catukinan * Chapacuran languages, Chapacuran: Wanyam language, Wanyam (Huañam), Cabishí language, Cabishí (Kabichi) * Mascoian languages, Mascoian * Zamucoan languages, Zamucoan * Guató language, Guatoan * Bororoan languages, Bororoan, Otuke language, Otuke ** Coraveca language, Coraveca, Covareca language, Covareca ** Curucaneca language, Curucaneca, Curuminaca language, Curuminaca * Nambicuaran languages, Nambicuaran ** Cabishí language, Cabishí * Muran languages, Muran ** Matanawí language, Matanawí * Trumai language, Trumaian * Carajá language, Caraján * Caririan languages, Caririan ;Macro-Ge * Je languages, Ge * Caingang language, Caingang * Camacán languages, Camacán, Mashacalí languages, Mashacalí, Purí languages, Purí (Coroado) ** Camacán languages, Camacán ** Mashacalí languages, Mashacalí ** Purí languages, Purí (Coroado) * Patashó language, Patashó * Malalí language, Malalí * Coropó language, Coropó * Botocudo language, Botocudo ;Other language families of eastern Brazil * Xavante language, Shavanté (Chavanté, Šavante) ** Otí language, Otí ** Opayé language, Opayé ** Cucurá language, Cucurá * Guaitacá language, Guaitacán * Small languages of the Pernambuco region: Fulnió language, Fulnió, Natú language, Natú, Pancãrurú language, Pancãrurú, Shocó language, Shocó, Shucurú language, Shucurú, Tushá language, Tushá, Carapató language, Carapató, Payacú language, Payacú, Teremembé language, Teremembé, Tarairiu language, Tarairiu (Ochucayana) ;Southernmost languages * Ataguitan ** Atacama language, Atacama ** Omahuaca language, Omawaca (Omahuaca) ** Diaguita language, Diaguita (Calchaquí) * Charrua language, Charrua, Querandi language, Kerandí, Chaná language, Chaná, etc. * Allentiac language, Allentiac (Huarpean) * Sanavirón language, Sanavirón, Comechingon language, Comechingónan ** Sanavirón language, Sanavirón ** Comechingón language, Comechingón * Araucanian language, Araucanian ** Chono language, Chono * Puelche language, Puelchean ** Chechehet language, Het (Chechehet) * Chonan languages, Chonan (Tehuelche language, Tewelche, Tehuelche), Selkʼnam language, Selkʼnam * Yahgan language, Yahganan * Alacalufan languages, Alacalufan

Loukotka (1968)

Čestmír Loukotka (1968) proposed a total of 117 indigenous language families (called ''stocks'' by Loukotka) and isolates of South America. ;Languages of Paleo-American tribes *A. Southern Division **1. ''Yámana language, Yámana'' **2. ''Alacaluf language, Alacaluf'' **3. Aksanás languages, Aksanás **4. ''Patagon languages, Patagon'' **5. ''Gennaken language, Gennaken'' **6. Chechehet languages, Chechehet **7. ''Sanaviron language, Sanaviron'' *B. Chaco Division **8. Guaicuru languages, Guaicuru **9. Vilela languages, Vilela **10. Mataco languages, Mataco **11. Lengua languages, Lengua **12. Zamuco languages, Zamuco **13. Chiquito languages, Chiquito **14. ''Gorgotoqui language, Gorgotoqui'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the areas of Divisions A and B. *C. Division of Central Brazil **15. Charrua languages, Charrua **16. Kaingán languages, Kaingán **17. ''Opaie language, Opaie'' **18. Puri languages, Puri **19. Mashakali languages, Mashakali **20. Botocudo languages, Botocudo **21. ''Baenan language, Baenan'' **22. Kamakan languages, Kamakan **23. Fulnio languages, Fulnio **24. Ge languages, Ge **25. ''Kukura language, Kukura'' (spurious) **26. ''Otí language, Otí'' **27. Boróro languages, Boróro **28. Karajá languages, Karajá **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of Division C. *D. Northeastern Division **29. ''Katembri language, Katembri'' **30. ''Tushá language, Tushá'' **31. ''Pankarurú language, Pankarurú'' **32. ''Xocó language, Chocó'' **33. ''Umán language, Umán'' **34. ''Natú language, Natú'' **35. Shukurú languages, Shukurú **36. Kiriri languages, Kiriri **37. Tarairiú languages, Tarairiú **38. Gamela languages, Gamela **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of Division D. *E. Northwestern Division **39. Múra languages, Múra **40. ''Matanawí language, Matanawí'' **41. ''Erikbaktsa language, Erikbaktsa'' **42. Nambikwára languages, Nambikwára **43. ''Iranshe language, Iranshe'' **44. Yabutí languages, Yabutí ;Languages of tropical forest tribes *A. North Central Division **45. Tupi languages, Tupi **46. Arawak languages, Arawak **47. Otomac languages, Otomac **48. Guamo languages, Guamo **49. ''Taruma language, Taruma'' **50. Piaroa–Saliban languages, Piaroa **51. Tinigua languages, Tinigua **52. ''Jukude language, Máku'' **53. ''Tucuna language, Tucuna'' **54. Yagua languages, Yagua **55. Kahuapana languages, Kahuapana **56. Munichi languages, Munichi **57. Cholona languages, Cholona **58. Mayna languages, Mayna **59. Murato languages, Murato **60. ''Auishiri language, Auishiri'' **61. ''Itucale language, Itucale'' **62. Jíbaro languages, Jíbaro **63. Sabela languages, Sabela **64. Záparo languages, Záparo **65. Chapacura languages, Chapacura **66. Huari languages, Huari **67. ''Capixana language, Capixana'' **68. ''Koaiá language, Koaiá'' **69. ''Purubora language, Purubora'' **70. ''Trumai language, Trumai'' **71. ''Cayuvava language, Cayuvava'' **72. ''Mobima language, Mobima'' **73. ''Itonama language, Itonama'' **74. ''Canichana language, Canichana'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the North Central Division. *B. South Central Division **75. Pano languages, Pano **76. Tacana languages, Tacana **77. ''Toyeri language, Toyeri'' **78. ''Yuracare language, Yuracare'' **79. Mosetene languages, Mosetene **80. ''Guató language, Guató'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the South Central Division. *C. Languages of the Central Division **81. Tucano languages, Tucano **82. ''Andoque language, Andoque'' **83. Uitoto languages, Uitoto **84. Bora languages, Bora **85. ''Yuri language (Amazon), Yuri'' **86. Nadahup languages, Makú **87. Catuquina languages, Catuquina **88. Arawa languages, Arawa **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the Central Division. *D. Northeastern Division **89. Karaib languages, Karaib **90. Yanoama languages, Yanoama **91. Uarao languages, Uarao **92. ''Auaké language, Auaké'' **93. ''Kaliána language, Kaliána'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the North Eastern Division. ;Languages of Andean tribes *A. Northern Division **94. Chibcha languages, Chibcha **95. Timote languages, Timote **96. Jirajara languages, Jirajara **97. Chocó languages, Chocó **98. ''Idabaez language, Idabaez'' **Unclassified or unknown division. *B. North Central Division **99. Yurimangui languages, Yurimangui **100. ''Cofán language, Cofán'' **101. Sechura languages, Sechura **102. Catacao languages, Catacao **103. ''Culli language, Culli'' **104. ''Tabancale language, Tabancale'' **105. ''Copallén language, Copallén'' **106. Chimú languages, Chimú *C. South Central Division **107. Quechua languages, Quechua **108. Aymara languages, Aymara **109. Puquina languages, Puquina **110. Uro languages, Uro **111. Atacama languages, Atacama **112. ''Leco language, Leco'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the Ancient Inca Empire. *D. Southern Division **113. Mapuche languages, Mapuche **114. Diaguit languages, Diaguit **115. Humahuaca languages, Humahuaca **116. Lule languages, Lule **117. Huarpe languages, Huarpe

Kaufman (1990)

Families and isolates

Terrence Kaufman's classification is meant to be a rather conservative genetic grouping of the languages of South America (and a few in Central America). He has 118 ''genetic units''. Kaufman believes for these 118 units "that there is little likelihood that any of the groups recognized here will be broken apart". Kaufman uses more specific terminology than only ''language family'', such as ''language area'', ''emergent area'', and ''language complex'', where he recognizes issues such as partial mutual intelligibility and dialect continuums. The list below collapses these into simply ''families''. Kaufman's list is numbered and grouped by "geolinguistic region". The list below is presented in alphabetic order. Kaufman uses an anglicized orthography for his genetic units, which is mostly used only by himself. His spellings have been retained below.

Stocks

In addition to his conservative list, Kaufman list several larger "stocks" which he evaluates. The names of the stocks are often obvious hyphenations of two members; for instance, the Páes-Barbakóa stock consists of the Páesan and Barbakóan families. If the composition is not obvious, it is indicated parenthetically. Kaufman puts question marks by Kechumara and Mosetén-Chon stocks. "Good" stocks: * Awaké–Kaliana languages, Awaké–Kaliana (Arutani–Sape) * Chibcha–Misumalpa languages, Chibcha–Misumalpa * Ezmeralda–Jaruro languages, Ezmeralda–Jaruro * Jurí–Tikuna languages, Jurí–Tikuna * Kechumara languages, Kechumara ''(=Quechuan languages, Kechua + Jaqi languages, Haki)'' (good?) * Lule–Vilela languages, Lule–Vilela * Mosetén–Chon languages, Mosetén–Chon (good?) * Páes–Barbakóa languages, Páes–Barbakóa * Pano–Takana languages, Pano–Takana * Sechura–Katakao languages, Sechura–Katakao * Wamo–Chapakúra languages, Wamo–Chapakúra "Probable" stocks: * Macro-Je languages, Macro-Je ''(=Chiquitano language, Chikitano + Bororoan languages, Boróroan + Krenak languages, Aimoré + Rikbaktsá language, Rikbaktsá + Jê languages, Je + Jaikó language, Jeikó + Kamakã languages, Kamakánan + Maxakalían languages, Mashakalían + Purian languages, Purían + Fulniô language, Fulnío + Karajá language, Karajá + Ofayé language, Ofayé + Guató language, Guató)'' * Mura–Matanawí languages, Mura–Matanawí "Promising" stocks: * Kaliánan languages, Kaliánan ''(=Arutani language, Awaké + Sape language, Kaliana + Máku language, Maku)'' "Maybe" stocks: * Bora–Witoto languages, Bora–Witoto * Hívaro–Kawapana languages, Hívaro–Kawapana * Macro-Paesan languages, Kunsa–Kapishaná (now abandoned) * Pukina–Kolyawaya languages, Pukina–Kolyawaya * Sáparo–Yawa languages, Sáparo–Yawa

Clusters and networks

Kaufman's largest groupings are what he terms ''clusters'' and ''networks''. Clusters are equivalent to macro-families (or phyla or superfamilies). Networks are composed of clusters. Kaufman views all of these larger groupings to be hypothetical and his list is to be used as a means to identify which hypotheses most need testing.

Campbell (2012)

Lyle Campbell (2024) proposed the following list of 47 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 53 isolates of South America – a total of 100 independent families and isolates. Language families with more than 6 languages are highlighted in bold. The remaining language families all have 6 languages or fewer. ;Families #

(Maipurean, Maipuran) (~65) – widespread #Cariban languages, Cariban (~40) – Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, etc. #Chapacuran languages, Chapacuran (Txapakúran) (9) – Brazil, Bolivia #

(23) – Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, Costa Rica #Jêan languages, Jêan (12) – Brazil #Pano–Takanan languages, Pano–Takanan (~30) – Brazil, Peru, Bolivia #Macro-Puinavean languages, Makúan (Makú–Puinavean, Puinavean, Guaviaré–Japurá) (8) – Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela #Quechuan languages, Quechuan (23 ?) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina #Tukanoan languages, Tukanoan (Tucanoan) (~20) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil #Tupían languages, Tupían (~55) – Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, etc. #Arawan languages, Arawan (Arahuan, Arauan, Arawán) (6) – Brazil, Peru #Aymaran languages, Aymaran (2) – Bolivia, Peru #Barbacoan languages, Barbacoan (5) – Colombia, Ecuador #Bororoan languages, Bororoan (3) – Brazil #Cahuapanan languages, Cahuapanan (2) – Peru #Cañar–Puruhá languages, Cañar–Puruhá (2; uncertain) – Ecuador #Charruan languages, Charruan (3) – Uruguay, Argentina #Chipaya–Uru languages, Chipaya–Uru (3) – Bolivia #Chocoan languages, Chocoan (2–6) – Colombia, Panama #Cholonan languages, Cholonan (2) – Peru #Chonan languages, Chonan (Chon) (3) – Argentina #Guaicuruan languages, Guaicuruan (Waykuruan) (5) – Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil #Guajiboan languages, Guajiboan (4) – Colombia #Harákmbut–Katukinan languages, Harákmbut–Katukinan (3; uncertain) – Peru, Brazil #Huarpean languages, Huarpean (Warpean) (2) – Argentina #Jabutían languages, Jabutían (2) – Brazil #Jirajaran languages, Jirajaran (3) – Venezuela #Jivaroan languages, Jivaroan (4 ?) – Peru, Ecuador #Kamakanan languages, Kamakanan (5 ?) – Brazil #Karajá languages, Karajá (2 ?) – Brazil #Karirian languages, Karirian (Karirí) (4) – Brazil #Krenákan languages, Krenákan (Botocudoan, Aimoré) (3) – Brazil #Lule–Vilelan languages, Lule–Vilelan (2) – Argentina #Mascoyan languages, Mascoyan (4) – Paraguay #Matacoan languages, Matacoan (4) – Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia #Maxakalían languages, Maxakalían (3) – Brazil #Mosetenan languages, Mosetenan (2) – Bolivia #Muran languages, Muran (4, only 1 living) – Brazil #Nambikwaran languages, Nambikwaran (5 ?) – Brazil #Qawasqaran languages, Qawasqaran (Kaweskaran, Alacalufan) (2–3) – Chile #Otomacoan languages, Otomacoan (2) – Venezuela #Paezan languages, Paezan (1–3; isolate ?) – Colombia #Purían languages, Purían (2) – Brazil #Sáliban languages, Sáliban (Sálivan) (3 ?) – Venezuela, Colombia #Sechura–Catacaoan languages, Sechura–Catacaoan (3) – Peru #Timotean languages, Timotean (2) – Venezuela #Tikuna–Yuri languages, Tikuna–Yuri – Peru, Colombia, Brazil #Tiniguan languages, Tiniguan (2) – Colombia #Yaguan languages, Yaguan (3) – Peru #Witotoan languages, Witotoan (Huitotoan) (5) – Colombia, Peru #Yanomaman languages, Yanomaman (4) – Venezuela, Brazil #Zamucoan languages, Zamucoan (2) – Paraguay, Bolivia #Zaparoan languages, Zaparoan (3) – Peru, Ecuador ;Isolates #Aikaná language, Aikaná – Brazil #Andaquí language, Andaquí – Colombia #Andoque language, Andoque (Andoke) – Colombia, Peru #Atacameño language, Atacameño (Cunza, Kunza, Atacama, Lipe) – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina #Awaké language, Awaké (Ahuaqué, Uruak) – Venezuela, Brazil #Baenan language, Baenan – Brazil #Betoi language, Betoi – Colombia (small family ?) #Camsá language, Camsá (Sibundoy, Coche) – Colombia #Candoshi language, Candoshi (Candoxi, Maina, Shapra, Murato) – Peru #Canichana language, Canichana – Bolivia #Cayuvava language, Cayuvava (Cayuwaba, Cayubaba) – Bolivia #Chiquitano language, Chiquitano – Bolivia #Chono language, Chono – Chile #Cofán language, Cofán (A’ingaé) – Colombia, Ecuador #Culle language, Culle – Peru #Gamela language, Gamela – Brazil #Guachí language, Guachí – Brazil #Guató language, Guató – Brazil #Irantxe language, Irantxe (Iranche, Münkü) – Brazil #Itonama language, Itonama (Saramo, Machoto) – Bolivia, Brazil #Jeikó language, Jeikó (Jeicó, Jaiko) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?) #Jotí language, Jotí (Yuwana) – Venezuela #Kaliana language, Kaliana (Sapé, Caliana, Cariana, Chirichano) – Venezuela #Kapixaná language, Kapixaná (Kanoé) – Brazil #Koayá language, Koayá (Kwaza, Koaiá, Arara) – Brazil #Jukude language, Máku (Mako) – Brazil #Mapudungu language, Mapudungu (Mapudungun, Araucano, Mapuche, Maputongo) – Chile, Argentina #Matanauí language, Matanauí – Brazil #Mochica language, Mochica (Yunga, Yunca, Chimú, Mochica, Muchic) – Peru #Movima language, Movima – Bolivia #Munichi language, Munichi (Muniche, Munichino, Otanabe) – Peru #Natú language, Natú (Peagaxinan) – Brazil #Ofayé language, Ofayé (Opayé, Ofayé–Xavante) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?) #Omurano language, Omurano (Humurana, Numurana) – Peru #Otí language, Otí – Brazil #Pankararú language, Pankararú (Pancararu, Pancarurú, Brancararu) – Brazil #Payaguá language, Payaguá – Paraguay #Puquina language, Puquina – Bolivia #Rikbaktsá language, Rikbaktsá (Aripaktsá, Eribatsa, Eripatsa, Canoeiro) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?) #Sabela languages, Sabela (Huao, Auca, Huaorani, Auishiri) – Ecuador #Taruma language, Taruma (Taruamá) – Brazil, Guyana #Taushiro language, Taushiro (Pinchi, Pinche) – Peru #Tequiraca language, Tequiraca (Tekiraka, Aushiri, Auishiri, Avishiri) – Peru #Trumai language, Trumai (Trumaí) – Brazil #Tuxá language, Tuxá – Brazil #Urarina language, Urarina (Simacu, Kachá, Itucale) – Peru #Wamoé language, Wamoé (Huamoé, Huamoi, Uamé, Umã; Araticum, Atikum) – Brazil #Warao language, Warao (Guarao, Warau, Guaruno) – Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela #Xokó language, Xokó – Brazil #Xukurú language, Xukurú – Brazil #Yagan language, Yagan (Yaghan, Yamana, Yámana) – Chile #Yaruro language, Yaruro (Pumé, Llaruro, Yaruru, Yuapín) – Venezuela #Yaté language, Yaté (Furniô, Fornió, Carnijó; Iatê) – Brazil #Yuracaré language, Yuracaré – Bolivia #Yurumangui language, Yurumangui – Colombia Campbell (2012) leaves out the classifications of these languages as uncertain. *Boran languages, Boran – Brazil, Colombia *''Esmeralda language, Esmeralda'' – Ecuador *''Guamo language, Guamo'' – Venezuela *''Leco language, Leko'' – Bolivia *''Mure language, Mure'' – Bolivia *''Puinave language, Puinave'' – Colombia, Venezuela

Jolkesky (2016)

Jolkesky (2016) lists 43 language families and 66 language isolates (and/or unclassified languages) in South America – a total of 109 independent families and isolates. *† = extinct ;Families #Andoke-Urekena languages, Andoke-Urekena #Arawa languages, Arawa #Barbakoa languages, Barbakoa #Bora-Muinane languages, Bora-Muinane #Chacha-Cholon-Hibito languages, Chacha-Cholon-Hibito #Chapakura-Wañam languages, Chapakura-Wañam #Charrua languages, Charrua #Chibcha languages, Chibcha #Choko languages, Choko #Chon languages, Chon #Duho languages, Duho #Guahibo languages, Guahibo #Harakmbet-Katukina languages, Harakmbet-Katukina #Jaqi languages, Jaqi #Jirajara languages, Jirajara † #Jivaro languages, Jivaro #Karib languages, Karib #Kawapana languages, Kawapana #Kechua languages, Kechua #Lengua-Maskoy languages, Lengua-Maskoy #Macro-Arawak languages, Macro-Arawak #Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru languages, Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru #Macro-Jê languages, Macro-Jê #Mapudungun languages, Mapudungun #Moseten-Tsimane languages, Moseten-Tsimane #Mura-Matanawi languages, Mura-Matanawi #Nambikwara languages, Nambikwara #Otomako-Taparita languages, Otomako-Taparita † #Pano-Takana languages, Pano-Takana #Peba-Yagua languages, Peba-Yagua #Puinave-Nadahup languages, Puinave-Nadahup #Puri languages, Puri † #Tallan languages, Tallan † #Timote-Kuika languages, Timote-Kuika #Tinigua-Pamigua languages, Tinigua-Pamigua #Tukano languages, Tukano #Tupi languages, Tupi #Uru-Chipaya languages, Uru-Chipaya #Warpe languages, Warpe † #Witoto-Okaina languages, Witoto-Okaina #Yanomami languages, Yanomami #Zamuko languages, Zamuko #Zaparo languages, Zaparo ;Isolates and unclassified languages #Aikanã language, Aikanã #Andaki language, Andaki † #Arara do Rio Branco language, Arara do Rio Branco #Arutani language, Arutani #Atakame language, Atakame † #Atikum language, Atikum † #Aushiri language, Aushiri † #Chono language, Chono † #Guamo language, Guamo † #Guato language, Guato #Gününa Këna language, Gününa Këna #Iranche language, Iranche/Myky language, Myky #Itonama language, Itonama #Kakan language, Kakan † #Kamsa language, Kamsa #Kañari language, Kañari † #Kanichana language, Kanichana #Kanoe language, Kanoe #Kawesqar language, Kawesqar #Kayuvava language, Kayuvava #Kerandi language, Kerandi † #Kimbaya language, Kimbaya † #Kingnam language, Kingnam † #Kofan language, Kofan #Komechingon language, Komechingon † #Koraveka language, Koraveka † #Kueva language, Kueva † #Kulle language, Kulle † #Kunza language, Kunza † #Kuruminaka language, Kuruminaka † #Kwaza language, Kwaza #Leco language, Leko #Lule language, Lule † #Jukude language, Maku #Malibu language, Malibu † #Mochika language, Mochika † #Mokana language, Mokana † #Morike language, Morike † #Movima language, Movima #Muzo-Kolima language, Muzo-Kolima † #Omurano language, Omurano #Oti language, Oti † #Paez language, Paez #Panche language, Panche † #Pijao language, Pijao † #Puruha language, Puruha † #Sanaviron language, Sanaviron † #Sape language, Sape #Sechura language, Sechura † #Tarairiu language, Tarairiu † #Taruma language, Taruma #Taushiro language, Taushiro #Tekiraka language, Tekiraka #Trumai language, Trumai #Tuxa language, Tuxa † #Umbra language, Umbra #Urarina language, Urarina #Vilela language, Vilela #Waorani language, Waorani #Warao language, Warao #Xukuru language, Xukuru † #Yagan language, Yagan #Yaruro language, Yaruro #Yurakare language, Yurakare #Yurumangui language, Yurumangui † #Zenu language, Zenu † ;Creoles, pidgins, and secret languages #Kallawaya language, Kallawaya #Maskoy Pidgin language, Maskoy Pidgin #Media Lengua language, Media Lengua #Ndyuka-Tiriyo language, Ndyuka-Tiriyo

All of the Americas

Swadesh (1960 or earlier)

Morris Swadesh further consolidated Sapir's North American classification and expanded it to group all indigenous languages of the Americas in just 6 families, 5 of which were entirely based in the Americas. # Vasco-Dene languages included the Eskimo–Aleut, Na-Dene, Wakashan and Kutenai families along with most of the languages of Eurasia. # Macro-Hokan roughly comprised a combination of Sapir's Hokan–Siouan and Almosan families and expanded into Central America including the Jicaque language. # Macro-Mayan comprising Mayan along with Sapir's Penutian and Aztec-Tanoan families, the Otomanguean languages and various languages of Central and South America including the Chibchan languages, the Paezan languages and the Tucanoan languages. # Macro-Quechua comprising the Zuni language, the Purépecha language and various languages of South America including Quechua languages, Quechua, the Aymara language, the Panoan languages and most of the various other languages of Patagonia and the Andes. # Macro-Carib, an almost entirely South American family including the Carib languages, the Macro-Je languages and the Jirajara languages, albeit including some Caribbean languages. # Macro-Arawak, a family primarily confined to South America and its component families included the Arawakan languages and the Tupian languages. However, it also was proposed to include the Taíno language in the Caribbean and the Timucua language in Florida.

Greenberg (1960, 1987)

Joseph Greenberg's classification in his 1987 book ''Joseph Greenberg#The languages of the Americas, Language in the Americas'' is best known for the highly controversial assertion that all North, Central and South American language families other than Eskimo–Aleut and Na-Dene including Haida, are part of an Amerind languages, Amerind macrofamily. This assertion of only three major American language macrofamilies is supported by DNA evidence, although the DNA evidence does not provide support for the details of his classification. # Amerind languages, Northern Amerind ## Almosan–Keresiouan ### Almosan languages, Almosan ####

####

#### Mosan languages, Mosan #####

#####

##### Chimakuan ###

### Keres languages, Keres ###

###

## Penutian languages, Penutian ### California Penutian languages, Penutian #### Maidu languages, Maidu #### Miwok–Costanoan languages, Miwok–Costanoan #### Wintun languages, Wintun #### Yokuts languages, Yokuts ### Chinook languages, Chinook ### Mexican Penutian (=Macro-Mayan) #### Huave languages, Huave ####

#### Mixe–Zoque languages, Mixe–Zoque #### Totonac languages, Totonac ### Oregon Penutian languages, Oregon Penutian ### Plateau Penutian languages, Plateau Penutian ###

### Yukian languages, Yukian ### Gulf languages, Gulf ####

####

#### Natchez #### Tunica ### Zuni ## Hokan languages, Hokan ### Hokan languages, Nuclear Hokan #### Hokan languages, Northern #####

–Shasta language, Shasta #####

##### Pomo languages, Pomo #### Washo ####

–Yuman languages, Yuman ####

–

#### Waicuri language, Waicuri #### Maratino #### Quinigua language, Quinigua #### Tequistlatec languages, Tequistlatec ### Coahuiltecan languages, Coahuiltecan ####

#### Coahuiltecan languages, Nuclear Coahuiltecan ####

### Subtiaba language, Subtiaba ### Jicaque languages, Jicaque ### Yurumangui language, Yurumangui # Central Amerind languages, Central Amerind ## Kiowa–Tanoan languages, Kiowa–Tanoan ##

# Chibchan–Paezan languages, Chibchan–Paezan ##

### Chibchan languages, Nuclear Chibchan #### Chibchan languages, Antioquia #### Aruak language, Aruak #### Chibcha languages, Chibcha #### Guna language, Cuna #### Guaymi language, Guaymi #### Malibu language, Malibu ####

#### Motilon language, Motilon #### Rama language, Rama #### Talamanca languages, Talamanca ### Paya language, Paya ### Purépecha language, Purépecha ### Xincan languages, Xinca ### Yanomam languages, Yanomam ### Yunca–Puruhan languages, Yunca–Puruhan ## Paezan languages, Paezan ### Allentiac language, Allentiac ### Atacama language, Atacama ### Betoi languages, Betoi ### Chimu languages, Chimu ### Itonama language, Itonama ### Jirajara languages, Jirajara ### Mura languages, Mura ### Nuclear Paezan #### Andaqui language, Andaqui #### Barbacoa languages, Barbacoa #### Choco languages, Choco #### Paez language, Paez ###

### Warrao language, Warrao # Andean (Greenberg (1960) joined Andean and Equatorial, but Greenberg (1987) did not) ## Aymara language, Aymara ## Itucale language, Itucale–Waorani language, Sabela ### Itucale language, Itucale ### Mayna language, Mayna ### Waorani language, Sabela ## Cahuapana–Zaparo ### Cahuapano languages, Cahuapano ### Zaparo languages, Zaparo ## Northern ### Catacao languages, Catacao ### Cholona languages, Cholona ### Culli language, Culli ### Leco language, Leco ### Sechura language, Sechura ## Quechua languages, Quechua ## Southern ### Qawesqar language, Qawesqar ### Mapundungu language, Mapundungu ### Gennaken language, Gennaken ### Patagon language (Peru), Patagon ### Yamana language, Yamana # Equatorial–Tucanoan ## Equatorial ### Macro-Arawakan languages, Macro-Arawakan ####

#### Guahibo languages, Guahibo #### Katembri language, Katembri #### Otomaco languages, Otomaco #### Tinigua languages, Tinigua ### Cayuvava language, Cayuvava ### Coche language, Coche ### Jivaro–Kandoshi languages, Jivaro–Kandoshi #### Cofan language, Cofan #### Esmeralda language, Esmeralda #### Jivaro languages, Jivaro #### Kandoshi language, Kandoshi #### Yaruro language, Yaruro ### Kariri–Tupi #### Kariri languages, Kariri #### Tupian languages, Tupian ### Piaroa language, Piaroa ### Taruma language, Taruma ### Timote language, Timote ### Trumai language, Trumai ### Tusha language, Tusha ### Yuracare language, Yuracare ### Zamucoan languages, Zamucoan ## Tucanoan languages, Tucanoan ### Auixiri language, Auixiri ### Canichana language, Canichana ### Capixana language, Capixana ### Catuquina language, Catuquina ### Gamella language, Gamella ### Huari language, Huari ### Iranshe language, Iranshe ### Kaliana–Maku languages, Kaliana–Maku #### Auake language, Auake #### Kaliana language, Kaliana #### Jukude language, Maku ### Koaia language, Koaia ### Movima language, Movima ### Muniche language, Muniche ### Nambikwara languages, Nambikwara ### Natu language, Natu ### Pankaruru language, Pankaruru ### Puinave language, Puinave ### Xukuruan languages, Shukura ### Ticuna–Yuri languages, Ticuna–Yuri #### Ticuna language, Ticuna #### Yuri language (Amazon), Yuri ### Tucanoan languages, Tucanoan ### Uman language, Uman # Je–Tupi–Carib, Ge–Pano–Carib ## Macro-Ge languages, Macro-Ge ### Bororo languages, Bororo ### Botocudo languages, Botocudo ### Caraja language, Caraja ### Chiquitano language, Chiquito ### Erikbatsa language, Erikbatsa ### Fulnio language, Fulnio ### Ge–Kaingang #### Ge languages, Ge #### Kaingang language, Kaingang ### Guato language, Guato ### Kamakan languages, Kamakan ### Mashakali languages, Mashakali ### Opaie language, Opaie ### Oti language, Oti ### Puri languages, Puri ### Yabuti languages, Yabuti ## Macro-Panoan languages, Macro-Panoan ### Charruan languages, Charruan ### Lengua languages, Lengua ### Lule–Vilela languages, Lule–Vilela #### Lule language, Lule #### Vilela language, Vilela ### Mataco–Guaicuru languages, Mataco–Guaicuru #### Guaicuru languages, Guaicuru #### Mataco languages, Mataco ### Moseten languages, Moseten ### Pano–Tacanan languages, Pano–Tacanan #### Panoan languages, Panoan #### Tacanan languages, Tacanan ## Cariban languages, Macro-Carib ### Andoke language, Andoke ### Bora–Uitoto languages, Bora–Uitoto #### Boran languages, Boro #### Uitoto languages, Uitoto #### Carib languages, Carib #### Kukura language, Kukura #### Peba-Yagua languages, Yagua

Mixed languages

In ''American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America'', Lyle Campbell describes various pidgins and trade languages spoken by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these mixed languages have not been documented and are known only by name. * Medny Aleut language, Medny Aleut (Copper Island Aleut) * Chinook Jargon * Broken Slavey (Slavey Jargon) * Loucheux Jargon * Michif (French Cree, Métis, Metchif) * Broken Oghibbeway (Broken Ojibwa) * Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (spoken by the Basque people, Basques, Mi'kmaq people, Micmacs, and Innu people, Montagnais in eastern Canada) * Delaware Jargon * Pidgin Massachusett * Jargonized Powhatan * Lingua Franca Creek language, Creek * Lingua Franca Apalachee language, Apalachee * Mobilian Jargon * Güegüence-Nicarao (formerly spoken in Nicaragua) * Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Carib Pidgin or Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin (Ndjuka-Trio) * Carib Pidgin-Arawak mixed language * Media Lengua * Catalangu * Callahuaya (Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya) * Nheengatú or Lingua Geral Amazonica ("Lingua Boa," Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte) * Lingua Geral do Sul or Lingua Geral Paulista (Tupí Austral) * Labrador Eskimo Pidgin * Hudson Strait Pidgin Eskimo (spoken from 1750–1850) * Nootka Jargon (18th–19th centuries; later replaced by Chinook Jargon) * Trader Navajo * Yopará (Guaraní-Spanish pidgin) * Afro-Seminole Creole (variety of Gullah) * Haida Jargon * Kutenai Jargon * Guajiro-Spanish mixed language Lingua francas * Occaneechi language, Ocaneechi (spoken in Virginia and the Carolinas in early colonial times) * Tuscarora language * Plains sign language

Linguistic areas

Notes and references

Bibliography

* See:

External links

Native American Language Net
* *
Diachronic Atlas of Comparative Linguistics (DiACL)Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors
The University of Texas at Austin
The Intercontinental Dictionary Series
{{DEFAULTSORT:Classification of the Indigenous languages of the Americas Indigenous languages of the Americas Language classification, Americas

North America

''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019)

Gallatin (1836)

Gallatin (1848)

Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"

Rivet (1924)

Sapir (1929): ''Encyclopædia Britannica''

Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964

Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"

Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), Mithun (1999)

Mesoamerica

South America

''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019)

Rivet (1924)

Mason (1950)

Loukotka (1968)

Kaufman (1990)

Families and isolates

Stocks

Clusters and networks

Campbell (2012)

Jolkesky (2016)

All of the Americas

Swadesh (1960 or earlier)

Greenberg (1960, 1987)

Mixed languages

Linguistic areas

See also

Notes and references

Bibliography

External links