Classic Veracruz culture (or Gulf Coast Classic culture) refers to a cultural area in the north and central areas of the present-day

Mexican state A Mexican State (), officially the Free and Sovereign State (), is a constituent federative entity of Mexico according to the Constitution of Mexico. Currently there are 31 states, each with its own constitution, government, state governor, a ...

Veracruz Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave, is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Political divisions of Mexico, Federal Entit ...

, a culture that existed from roughly 100 to 1000 CE, or during the Classic era.

El Tajin EL, El or el may refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional entities * El, a character from the manga series ''Shugo Chara!'' by Peach-Pit * Eleven (''Stranger Things'') (El), a fictional character in the TV series ''Stranger Things'' * El, fami ...

was the major center of Classic Veracruz culture; other notable settlements include Higueras, Zapotal,

Cerro de las Mesas Cerro de las Mesas, meaning "hill of the altars" in Spanish, is an archaeological site in the Mexican state of Veracruz, in the Mixtequilla area of the Papaloapan River basin. It was a prominent regional center from 600 BCE to 900 CE, and a regi ...

, Nopiloa, and

Remojadas Remojadas () is a name applied to a culture, an archaeological site, as well as an artistic style that flourished on Mexico's Veracruz Gulf Coast from perhaps 100 BCE to 800 CE. The Remojadas culture is considered part of the larger Classi ...

, the latter two important ceramics centers. The culture spanned the

Gulf Coast The Gulf Coast of the United States, also known as the Gulf South or the South Coast, is the coastline along the Southern United States where they meet the Gulf of Mexico. The coastal states that have a shoreline on the Gulf of Mexico are Tex ...

between the

Pánuco River The Pánuco River (, ), also known as the ''Río de Canoas'', is a river in Mexico fed by several tributaries including the Moctezuma River and emptying into the Gulf of Mexico. The river is approximately long and passes through or borders the ...

on the north and the

Papaloapan River The Papaloapan River () is one of the main rivers of the Political divisions of Mexico, Mexican state of Veracruz (state), Veracruz. Its name comes from the Nahuatl ''papaloapan'' meaning "river of the Butterfly, butterflies". In 1518 Juan de Grij ...

on the south. The Classic Veracruz culture is sometimes associated with the

Totonac The Totonac are an Indigenous people of Mexico who reside in the states of Veracruz, Puebla, and Hidalgo. They are one of the possible builders of the pre-Columbian city of El Tajín, and further maintained quarters in Teotihuacán (a cit ...

s, who were occupying this territory at the time of the

Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was a pivotal event in the history of the Americas, marked by the collision of the Aztec Triple Alliance and the Spanish Empire. Taking place between 1519 and 1521, this event saw the Spanish conquistad ...

. However, there is little or no evidence that the Totonacs were the originators of the Classic era culture. Another candidate for the ethnolinguistic identity is the

Huastecs The Huastec or Téenek (contraction of ''Te' Inik'', "people from here"; also known as Huaxtec, Wastek or Huastecos) are an Indigenous people of Mexico, living in the La Huasteca region including the states of Hidalgo, Veracruz, San Luis Potosí ...

Social structure

Burials, monumental sculpture, relief carvings, and the distribution of architecture within the regional centers all point to a stratification of Classic Veracruz society, including the presence of an

elite In political and sociological theory, the elite (, from , to select or to sort out) are a small group of powerful or wealthy people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a group. Defined by the ...

rank as well as craft specialization. Elite hereditary rulers held sway over these small- to medium-sized regional centers, none over 2000 km², maintaining their rule through political and religious control of far-flung trade networks and legitimizing it through typical Mesoamerican rites such as bloodletting, human sacrifice, warfare, and use of exotic goods. Much or most of the population, however, lived in isolated homesteads, hamlets, or villages. Like the Epi-Olmec and

Olmec The Olmecs () or Olmec were an early known major Mesoamerican civilization, flourishing in the modern-day Mexican states of Veracruz and Tabasco from roughly 1200 to 400 Before the Common Era, BCE during Mesoamerica's Mesoamerican chronolog ...

cultures before it, Classic Veracruz culture was based on

swidden Slash-and-burn agriculture is a form of shifting cultivation that involves the cutting and burning of plants in a forest or woodland to create a field called a swidden. The method begins by cutting down the trees and woody plants in an area. Th ...

, or slash-and-burn, agriculture, with maize an important component of the diet, supplemented with domestic dog, wild deer and other mammals, and fish and shellfish. Cotton was also an important crop.

Religion

Little is known concerning Classic Veracruz religion and inferences have to be made from better-known Mesoamerican religions such as those of the Aztec, Mixtec, and Maya. Only some of the many deity figures known from these religions have been recognized with any certainty. Large ceramic figures show a stooped, very old man representing the Mesoamerican fire god. Equally large ceramic statues show female earth goddesses with snake girdles connected to the site of

El Zapotal El Zapotal is a Totonac archaeological site located in the Ignacio de la Llave Municipality in Veracruz, Mexico. It contains the ruins of a Totonac city that flourished from 600 to 900 CE, during what archaeologists call the Classical Period. ...

. Based on their closed eyes and wide open mouths, and also on the nearby shrine of a death god and on the surrounding burials, the latter have been identified as deified women who died in child birth, more or less corresponding to the much later Aztec ''

cihuateteo In Aztec mythology, the Cihuateteo (; , in singular ) or "Divine Women", were the spirits of women who died in childbirth. They were likened to the spirits of male warriors who died in violent conflict, because childbirth was conceptually equiv ...

'' ('female gods') also known from the

Codex Borgia The Codex Borgia ( The Vatican, Bibl. Vat., Borg.mess.1), also known as ''Codex Borgianus'', ''Manuscrit de Veletri'' and ''Codex Yohualli Ehecatl'', is a pre-Columbian Middle American pictorial manuscript from Central Mexico featuring calendric ...

. Otherwise similar ceramic statues of earth goddesses, however, standing or seated, do not have dead faces and should therefore not be compared to the Aztec ''cihuateteo''. The ball court reliefs of

prominently depict a death god, a rain god and what may be a sun god and are important for their narrative quality perhaps related to the origin of

pulque Pulque (; ), occasionally known as octli or agave wine, is an alcoholic beverage made from the fermented sap of the maguey (agave) plant. It is traditional in central Mexico, where it has been produced for millennia. It has the color of milk, ...

. Hachas commonly show the head of an aged god probably connected to earth and water. An earth monster was likely inherited from the

s. Many ceremonially clad ceramic figurines have been found that testify to the importance of public ritual, while the ceramic figurines of persons with smiling and laughing faces (the so-called ''sonrientes'') seem to represent ritual performers; they may point to a cult similar to that of the much later Aztec deity Xochipilli. However, hardly anything is known about the interrelations of the deities mentioned above, their role in the religious feasts, and the possible connection of these feasts to the calendar (like the monthly feasts of the Aztec and Maya).

Mesoamerican ballgame

The Classic Veracruz culture was seemingly obsessed with the ballgame. Every cultural center had at least one ballcourt, while up to 18 ballcourts have been found at El Tajin. It was during Late Classic here in north-central Veracruz that the ballgame reached its height. The ballgame rituals appear throughout Classic Veracruz monumental art. The walls of largest ballcourt, the East Ballcourt at El Tajin are lined with carved murals showing human sacrifice in the context of the ballgame (see photo above). The culmination of these murals is a tableau showing the rain god, who pierces his penis (an act of

bloodletting Bloodletting (or blood-letting) was the deliberate withdrawal of blood from a patient to prevent or cure illness and disease. Bloodletting, whether by a physician or by leeches, was based on an ancient system of medicine in which blood and othe ...

) to replenish a vat of the alcoholic, ritual drink

, the apparent desired result of the ballgame ritual sacrifice. A defining characteristic of the Classic Veracruz culture is the presence of stone ballgame gear: yokes, ''hachas'', and ''palmas''. Yokes are U-shaped stones worn about the waist of a ballplayer, while the ''hachas'' and ''palmas'' sit upon the yoke. ''Palmas'' were fitted to the front of a yoke and were elongated sculptures often of effigies of birds—like turkeys—or realistic scenes. ''Hachas'' were thin stone heads that were markers that were typically placed in the court to score the game, but could be worn on the yoke. Archaeologists generally suppose that the stone yokes are ritual versions of leather, cotton, and/or wood yokes, although no such perishable artifacts have yet been unearthed. While the yokes and ''hachas'' have been found from Teotihuacan to Guatemala, the ''palmas'' seem peculiar to what is today northern Veracruz. Panel9SBCTajin.JPG, One of a series of murals from the South Ballcourt at

, showing the sacrifice of a ballplayer Commemorative ballgame yoke with three faces and cacao beans, Mexico, Gulf Coast, Veracruz, 750-1000 AD, andesite - De Young Museum - DSC00558.JPG, Stone commemorative yoke for the ballgame, carved with faces and

cocoa bean The cocoa bean, also known as cocoa () or cacao (), is the dried and fully fermented seed of ''Theobroma cacao'', the cacao tree, from which cocoa solids (a mixture of nonfat substances) and cocoa butter (the fat) can be extracted. Cacao tree ...

, 750-1000 CE

Art

The art of Classic Veracruz is rendered with extensive and convoluted banded scrolls that can be seen both on monumental architecture and on portable art, including ceramics and even carved bones. At least one researcher has suggested that the heads and other features formed by the scrolls are a Classic Veracruz form of

pictograph A pictogram (also pictogramme, pictograph, or simply picto) is a graphical symbol that conveys meaning through its visual resemblance to a physical object. Pictograms are used in systems of writing and visual communication. A pictography is a wri ...

ic writing. This scrollwork may have grown out of similar styles found in Chiapa de Corzo and

Kaminaljuyu Kaminaljuyu (pronounced ; from Kʼicheʼ language, Kʼicheʼʼ, "The Hill of the Dead") is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization located in History of Guatemala City, Guatemala City. Primarily occupied from 1500 BC to 1200 AD, it has been ...

. In addition to the scrollwork, the architecture is known for its remarkable ornamentation, such as that seen on the Pyramid of Niches at El Tajin. This ornamentation produces dramatic contrasts of light and shadow, what art historian

George Kubler George Alexander Kubler (July 26, 1912 – October 3, 1996) was an American art historian and among the foremost scholars on the art of pre-Columbian America and Ibero-American Art. Biography Kubler was born in Hollywood, California, but mos ...

called a "bold

chiaroscuro In art, chiaroscuro ( , ; ) is the use of strong contrasts between light and dark, usually bold contrasts affecting a whole composition. It is also a technical term used by artists and art historians for the use of contrasts of light to ach ...

". While Classic Veracruz culture shows influences from

Teotihuacan Teotihuacan (; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Teotihuacán'', ; ) is an ancient Mesoamerican city located in a sub-valley of the Valley of Mexico, which is located in the State of Mexico, northeast of modern-day Mexico City. Teotihuacan is ...

and the

Maya Maya may refer to: Ethnic groups * Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America ** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples ** Mayan languages, the languages of the Maya peoples * Maya (East Africa), a p ...

, neither of these cultures are its direct antecedents. Instead, the seeds of this culture seems to have come at least in part from the

Epi-Olmec culture The Epi-Olmec culture was a cultural area in the central region of the present-day Mexican state of Veracruz. Concentrated in the Papaloapan River basin, a culture that existed during the Late Formative period, from roughly 300 BCE to roughly 250 ...

centers, such as

and

La Mojarra La Mojarra is an archaeological site in the Mexican state of Veracruz, located near Gulf Coast, at a bend in the Acula River. It was continually occupied from the late Formative period (ca. 300 BCE) until perhaps as late as 1000 CE. Not a large ...

. Remojadas head - front view (Art Institute).jpg, Portrait head from Remojadas, 250-550 CE Seated Warrior and Two Dogs, Veracruz, 400-800 CE.jpg, Sculptures of a seated warrior and two dogs, 400-800 CE Clevelandart 1940.11.jpg, Ceramic head, 600–900 CE Classic Veracruz jaguar incense burner - IMJ B77.1264 - frontal.jpg, Incense burner shaped like a jaguar being, 600-900 CE

Ceramics

Until the early 1950s, the Classic Veracruz ceramics were few, little understood, and generally without

provenance Provenance () is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including archaeology, p ...

. Since then, the recovery of thousands of figurines and pottery pieces from sites such as

, Los Cerros, Dicha Tuerta, and Tenenexpan, some initially by looters, has expanded our understanding and filled many museum shelves. Artist and art historian

Miguel Covarrubias Miguel Covarrubias, also known as José Miguel Covarrubias Duclaud (22 November 1904 — 4 February 1957) was a Mexican painter, caricaturist, illustrator, ethnologist and art historian. Along with his American colleague Matthew W. Stirling, ...

described Classic Veracruz ceramics as "powerful and expressive, endowed with a charm and sensibility unprecedented in other, more formal cultures".

style figurines, perhaps the most easily recognizable, are usually hand-modeled, and often adorned with

appliqué Appliqué is ornamental needlework in which pieces or patches of fabric in different shapes and patterns are sewn or stuck onto a larger piece to form a picture or pattern. It is commonly used as decoration, especially on garments. The technique ...

s. Of particular note are the ''Sonrientes'' (smiling faces) figurines, with triangular-shaped heads and outstretched arms. Nopiloa figurines are usually less ornate, without appliqués, and often molded.Covarrubias, p. 191. The Classic Veracruz culture produced some of the few wheeled Mesoamerican figurines and is also noted for the use of

bitumen Bitumen ( , ) is an immensely viscosity, viscous constituent of petroleum. Depending on its exact composition, it can be a sticky, black liquid or an apparently solid mass that behaves as a liquid over very large time scales. In American Engl ...

for highlighting. Male-female duality figure from Remojadas.jpg, Large male/female duality figurine from Remojadas. Note the feminine breast and birds on the right side Gulf Coast Polychrome Ceramic Brazier with Head of Rain God Tlaloc.jpg, Ceramic brazier with head of Tlaloc, the rain god Ngv, veracruz, testa con vita e morte, 300-600 dc.jpg, Head depicting a fleshy face on one side, and a skull on the other, 300-600 CE

Notes

References

* Bruhns, Karen Olse
Anthropology 470 Study Guide.
* Coe, Michael D. (2002); ''Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs'' Thames and Hudson, London. * Covarrubias, Miguel (1957) ''Indian Art of Mexico and Central America'', Alfred A. Knopf, New York. * Davies, Nigel (1982) ''The Ancient Kingdoms of Mexico'', Penguin Books, London, 1990 printing, . * * Diehl, Richard, "Death Gods, Smiling Faces and Colossal Heads: Archaeology of the Mexican Gulf Lowlands". http://www.famsi.org/research/diehl/section02.html * Kampen, M. E. (1978) "Classic Veracruz Grotesques and Sacrificial Iconography", in ''Man'', Vol. 13, No. 1 (Mar., 1978), pp. 116–126. * Kampen-O'Riley, Michael (2006) ''Art Beyond the West'', Prentice-Hall Art, Second Edition, . * Kubler, George (1990) ''The Art and Architecture of Ancient America'', 3rd Edition, Yale University Press, . * Noble, John; Nystrom, Andrew Dean; Konn, Morgan; Grosberg, Michael (2004) ''Mexico'', Lonely Planet, 9th Ed, . * Medellín Zenil, Alfonso; Frederick A. Peterson (1954) "A Smiling Head Complex from Central Veracruz, Mexico" in ''American Antiquity'', Vol. 20, No. 2. (Oct., 1954), pp. 162–169. * Metropolitan Museum of Art
"Palma with Skeletal Head Figure (Mexico, Veracruz) (1978.412.16)"
(October 2006) in ''Timeline of Art History'', New York. * Pool, Christopher (2002) "Gulf Coast Classic" in ''Encyclopedia of Prehistory; Volume 5, Middle America'', Peter N. Peregrine and

Melvin Ember Melvin Lawrence Ember (January 13, 1933 – September 27, 2009) was an American cultural anthropologist and cross-cultural researcher with wide-ranging interests who combined an active research career with writing for nonprofessionals. Biograp ...

, eds., Springer Publishing. * * Wilkerson, S. Jeffrey K. (1991) "Then They Were Sacrificed: The Ritual Ballgame of Northeastern Mesoamerica Through Time and Space", in ''The Mesoamerican Ballgame'', University of Arizona Press, .

External links

A Nopiloa-style figurine of a woman in ceremonial dress, 700 - 900 CE.
* ttp://www.beloit.edu/logan_online/collections/catalogue/central_america/veracruz/veracruz/veracruz.php A broad collection of Classic Veracruz ceramicsfrom the Logan Museum at

Beloit College Beloit College is a private liberal arts college in Beloit, Wisconsin, United States. Founded in 1846 when Wisconsin was still a territory, it is the state's oldest continuously operated college. It has an enrollment of roughly 1,000 undergradua ...

. {{DEFAULTSORT:Classic Veracruz Culture

Classic period in the Americas Culture of Veracruz