Chiquihuite Cave
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Chiquihuite Cave is a possible
Upper Paleolithic The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. Very broadly, it dates to between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago (the beginning of the Holocene), according to some theories ...
archaeological site in the Astillero Mountains,
Zacatecas Zacatecas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Zacatecas, is one of the Political divisions of Mexico, 31 states of Mexico. It is divided into Municipalities of Zacatecas, 58 municipalities and its capital city is Zacatecas City, Zacatec ...
State, in North-Central
Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...
. Chiquihuite Cave may be evidence of early human presence in the Western Hemisphere up to 33,000 years ago. It is located 2,740 meters (9000 feet) above sea level and about 1 kilometer higher than the valley below. Stones discovered here, thought to be lithic artifacts, have been dated to 26,000 years ago based on more than 50 samples of animal bone and charcoal found in association with these stones. However, there is scholarly debate over whether the stones are truly artifacts, human-made tools that are evidence of human presence, or if they were formed naturally. No evidence of human DNA or
hearths A hearth () is the place in a home where a fire is or was traditionally kept for home heating and for cooking, usually constituted by a horizontal hearthstone and often enclosed to varying degrees by any combination of reredos (a low, partial ...
have been unearthed.


Excavation history

Excavations were started in 2012, when a test pit unearthed unusual stones believed to be artifacts. Further excavations were carried out in an expanded 3-meter-deep excavation unit in 2016 and 2017 under the leadership of Ciprian Ardelean of the
Autonomous University of Zacatecas The Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas (UAZ) (Autonomous University of Zacatecas) is a Mexican public research university based in the city of Zacatecas, Zacatecas, but with several campuses across the state. It is considered both the most pres ...
(Mexico). Ardelean's team recovered 1,930 stone objects from the cave. Evidence of wind-blown sediment indicates that they could have moved horizontally, but not vertically through stratigraphic layers used to date them. The researchers obtained 46
radiocarbon dates Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was de ...
from bone, charcoal, and sediment samples. They found six more dates using
luminescence dating Luminescence dating refers to a group of chronological dating methods of determining how long ago mineral grains were last exposed to sunlight or sufficient heating. It is useful to geologists and archaeologists who want to know when such an event ...
. The dates indicate that the objects were deposited about 26,000 years ago. Ardelean's team used pollen analysis and DNA extractions to find if early humans had been present in the cave: no human DNA was found.


Evidence of early humans

Many of the stones found in Chiquihuite Cave are believed to be artifacts, specifically human-made tools. Almost 30 percent of them show signs of usage around the edges. They are black and green limestone. The use of limestone may indicate human selectivity because of its availability near the cave but not within it. The shape of many of the artifacts also suggest that they were flaked using human tools such as wooden or bone hammers. Ardelean considers some of the artifacts to be transversal points, suggesting that they were made using
microlithic technology Stone tools have been used throughout human history but are most closely associated with prehistoric cultures and in particular those of the Stone Age. Stone tools may be made of either ground stone or knapped stone, the latter fashioned by a cr ...
. This technology differentiates the artifacts from similar ones found at nearby sites. Researchers also considered environmental data. They found palm
phytolith Phytoliths (from Greek language, Greek, "plant stone") are rigid, microscopic mineral deposits found in some plant tissues, often persisting after the decay of the plant. Although some use "phytolith" to refer to all mineral secretions by plants, ...
s in all samples from inside the cave. It is unlikely that the palm phytoliths were naturally present in the cave based on the high altitude. It is more likely that they are remnants of plants brought into the cave by early humans. DNA from a wide range of animals was found in the cave, including black bears, rodents, bats,
vole Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars (high-crowned with angular cusps instead of lo ...
s, and even
kangaroo rats Kangaroo rats, small mostly nocturnal rodents of genus ''Dipodomys'', are native to arid areas of western North America. The common name derives from their bipedal form. They hop in a manner similar to the much larger kangaroo, but developed thi ...
.
DNA sequencing DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine. The ...
indicates that an ancestor of the American black bear was present in the cave 16,000 years ago and a now-extinct
giant short-faced bear The Tremarctinae or short-faced bears is a subfamily of Ursidae that contains one living representative, the spectacled bear (''Tremarctos ornatus'') of South America, and several extinct species from four genera: the Florida spectacled bear ('' ...
was in the cave 13,000 years ago. No human DNA was found. The chances of finding human DNA in the cave were low, so human presence should not be ruled out because of this factor. The site is lacking in cultural evidence of humans, making archaeologists conclude that the site was visited only occasionally by bands of hunter-gatherers; perhaps it was used as a refuge during particularly severe weather. Evidence indicates that the cave was in use for approximately 16,000 years. If so, Chiquihuite Cave serves as significant evidence that humans were adapted to living in high altitude mountainous areas much earlier than previously thought.


Regional context

According to the scientists involved in this research, recent investigations have uncovered good evidence of a human presence during the Late
Pleistocene The Pleistocene ( ; referred to colloquially as the ''ice age, Ice Age'') is the geological epoch (geology), epoch that lasted from to 11,700 years ago, spanning the Earth's most recent period of repeated glaciations. Before a change was fin ...
and Early
Holocene The Holocene () is the current geologic time scale, geological epoch, beginning approximately 11,700 years ago. It follows the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene to ...
epochs in other parts of Mexico, too. They refer to “the northwest region of Mexico, the Chiapas Highlands, Central Mexico, and the Caribbean coast”. This new research pushes back “dates for human dispersal to the region possibly as early as 33,000–31,000 years ago”. Other sites in the Western Hemisphere including
Bluefish Caves Bluefish Caves is an archaeological site in Yukon, Canada, located southwest of the Vuntut Gwichin community of Old Crow. It has been suggested that human occupation dates to 24,000 years Before Present (BP) based on radiocarbon dating of anim ...
in Canada and the Santa Elina shelter in
Brazil Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in South America. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by area, fifth-largest country by area and the List of countries and dependencies by population ...
( :es:Abrigo de Santa Elina) have yielded similar dates to Chiquihuite. Transversal points similar to those found in Chiquihuite Cave are common at Pleistocene sites in South America including the
Toca da Tira Peia TOCA, formally trading as BARC (TOCA) Ltd, is an organiser of motorsport events in the United Kingdom. The company organises and administers the British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) and the support series to the BTCC, sometimes known as the ...
, Toca da Pena (
Serra da Capivara National Park Serra da Capivara National Park ( Portuguese: ''Parque Nacional Serra da Capivara'', ) is a national park in the Northeastern region of Brazil. The area has many prehistoric paintings. The name of the mountain range that defines the park, "Serr ...
), and Toca da Janela da Barra do Antonião-Norte sites in Brazil.


Controversy

Scholars disagree over the significance of the excavations at Chiquihuite Cave. In 2021, a team of researchers headed by
James Chatters James C. Chatters (born March 20, 1949) is an American archaeologist and paleontologist. , he is the owner of forensics consulting firm, Applied Paleoscience; and serves as a research associate in the Office of Graduate Studies, Research, and Cont ...
of
Central Washington University Central Washington University (CWU) is a public university in Ellensburg, Washington, United States. Founded in 1891, the university consists of four divisions: the President's Division, Business and Financial Affairs, Operations, and Academi ...
concluded that if the dating of the Chiquihuite site were accurate, the population present would have had to have been completely invisible to genetic studies and contributed no genes to ancestral Native Americans. Additionally, the potential artifacts were called into question, with the researchers suggesting that they are likely
geofact A geofact (a portmanteau of ''geology'' and ''artifact'') is a natural stone formation that is difficult to distinguish from a man-made artifact. Geofacts could be fluvially reworked and be misinterpreted as an artifact, especially when compared ...
s created as the result of natural processes. He found that the slope of limestone pointing towards the mouth of the cave could have caused a natural deposit of stone, which would be naturally flaked during the fall, to appear like artifacts. Furthermore, Ardelean's data indicates that limestone could have been produced from the cave wall. Chatters also believes that blade cores and tertiary flakes would be found near the site if the tools were created by human flaking. Kurt Rademaker, another member of the team, found the images of the proposed tools to lack chipping around the edge which is usually common on stone tools. Chatters raised a number of concerns about the work done by Ardelean at Chiquihuite Cave. He claims that there was not enough detail provided on how the lithic analysis was conducted. He also recommends that Ardelean should have excavated at the mouth of the cave where humans were more likely to have been rather than deep inside the cave. Finally, Chatters found that the human behaviors at Chiquihuite Cave, namely the diet shown through faunal analysis and patterns of usage of such an inaccessible area, are incompatible with existing scientific understanding of early humans. Ardelean has responded to this critique with an article defending his argument. He further analyzed ten of the stone tools with special attention to evidence of flake technology and use-wear. He remains confident that 239 tools from the lowest layer were locked beneath a layer of mud and were therefore dated properly. He claims the tools may indicate a beginner was learning how to flake from an expert, based on marks on the artifacts.


See also

*
Peopling of the Americas It is believed that the peopling of the Americas began when Paleolithic hunter-gatherers (Paleo-Indians) entered North America from the North Asian Mammoth steppe via the Beringia land bridge, which had formed between northeastern Siberia and we ...
*
Meadowcroft Rockshelter The Meadowcroft Rockshelter is an archaeological site which is located near Avella in Jefferson Township, Pennsylvania. The site is a rock shelter in a bluff overlooking Cross Creek (a tributary of the Ohio River), and contains evidence that the ...


References


Bibliography

* ''The Chiquihuite Cave in Zacatecas, Mexico: Cultural Components, Lithic Industry and the Role of This Pleistocene Site in the Peopling of America.'' Ciprian Ardelean. Presented at The 82nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC. 2018 (tDAR id: 443571) * * * *


External links

* {{Authority control Pre-Clovis archaeological sites in the Americas Archaeological sites in Zacatecas