Chevalier De Saint-Georges
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Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de Saint-George(s) (; ; 25 December 17459 June 1799) was a French violinist,
conductor Conductor or conduction may refer to: Biology and medicine * Bone conduction, the conduction of sound to the inner ear * Conduction aphasia, a language disorder Mathematics * Conductor (ring theory) * Conductor of an abelian variety * Cond ...
,
composer A composer is a person who writes music. The term is especially used to indicate composers of Western classical music, or those who are composers by occupation. Many composers are, or were, also skilled performers of music. Etymology and def ...
and soldier. Moreover, he demonstrated excellence as a fencer, an athlete and an accomplished dancer. His historical significance lies partly in his distinctive background as a biracial
free man of color In the context of the history of slavery in the Americas, free people of color (; ) were primarily people of mixed African, European, and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Native American descent who were not enslaved. However, the term also ...
. Bologne was the first
classical composer This is a list of lists of composers grouped by various criteria. Name * List of composers by name Women * List of female composers by name * List of female composers by birth date *List of Australian female composers Genre * Anime composer * ...
of
African descent Black is a racial classification of people, usually a political and skin color-based category for specific populations with a mid- to dark brown complexion. Not all people considered "black" have dark skin and often additional phenotypical ...
to attain widespread acclaim in European music. He composed an array of
violin concerto A violin concerto is a concerto for solo violin (occasionally, two or more violins) and instrumental ensemble (customarily orchestra). Such works have been written since the Baroque period, when the solo concerto form was first developed, up thro ...
s,
string quartet The term string quartet refers to either a type of musical composition or a group of four people who play them. Many composers from the mid-18th century onwards wrote string quartets. The associated musical ensemble consists of two Violin, violini ...
s,
sinfonia concertante Sinfonia concertante (; also called ''symphonie concertante'') is an orchestral work, normally in several movements, in which one or more solo instruments contrast with the full orchestra.Collins: ''Encyclopedia of Music'', William Collins Sons & ...
s, violin duets,
sonata In music a sonata (; pl. ''sonate'') literally means a piece ''played'' as opposed to a cantata (Latin and Italian ''cantare'', "to sing"), a piece ''sung''. The term evolved through the history of music, designating a variety of forms until th ...
s, two
symphonies A symphony is an extended musical composition in Western classical music, most often for orchestra. Although the term has had many meanings from its origins in the ancient Greek era, by the late 18th century the word had taken on the meaning c ...
and an assortment of stage works, notably
opéra comique ''Opéra comique'' (; plural: ''opéras comiques'') is a genre of French opera that contains spoken dialogue and arias. It emerged from the popular ''opéras comiques en vaudevilles'' of the Théâtre de la foire, Fair Theatres of St Germain and S ...
. Born in the
French colony The French colonial empire () comprised the overseas Colony, colonies, protectorates, and League of Nations mandate, mandate territories that came under French rule from the 16th century onward. A distinction is generally made between the "Firs ...
of
Guadeloupe Guadeloupe is an Overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France in the Caribbean. It consists of six inhabited islands—Basse-Terre Island, Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Guadeloupe, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galant ...
, his father, Georges Bologne de Saint-Georges, was a wealthy, white
plantation owner The planter class was a racial and socioeconomic class which emerged in the Americas during European colonization in the early modern period. Members of the class, most of whom were settlers of European descent, consisted of individuals who ow ...
, while his mother was one of the Creole people Georges kept enslaved. At the age of seven, he was taken to
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
where he began his formal education. As a young man he won a fencing contest leading to his appointment as a "" by king
Louis XVI Louis XVI (Louis-Auguste; ; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. The son of Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765), Louis, Dauphin of France (son and heir- ...
. Having received music and
musical composition Musical composition can refer to an Originality, original piece or work of music, either Human voice, vocal or Musical instrument, instrumental, the musical form, structure of a musical piece or to the process of creating or writing a new pie ...
lessons, he joined the orchestra ; culminating in his appointment as its conductor in 1773. In 1776, Saint-Georges began conducting the
Paris Opera The Paris Opera ( ) is the primary opera and ballet company of France. It was founded in 1669 by Louis XIV as the , and shortly thereafter was placed under the leadership of Jean-Baptiste Lully and officially renamed the , but continued to be kn ...
. However, this prospect was thwarted by opposition from certain performers who resisted the idea of being led by an individual of color. Around this time, he shifted his focus to composing operas. In 1781, he joined a new orchestra . By 1785, he had stopped composing instrumental works altogether. Following the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, Saint-Georges left for England. Upon his return to
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
, he joined the
National Guard National guard is the name used by a wide variety of current and historical uniformed organizations in different countries. The original National Guard was formed during the French Revolution around a cadre of defectors from the French Guards. ...
in
Lille Lille (, ; ; ; ; ) is a city in the northern part of France, within French Flanders. Positioned along the Deûle river, near France's border with Belgium, it is the capital of the Hauts-de-France Regions of France, region, the Prefectures in F ...
and then served as a
colonel Colonel ( ; abbreviated as Col., Col, or COL) is a senior military Officer (armed forces), officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a colon ...
in the , which comprised "citizens of color". His social and professional ties to prominent figures such as
Marie Antoinette Marie Antoinette (; ; Maria Antonia Josefa Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last List of French royal consorts, queen of France before the French Revolution and the establishment of the French First Republic. She was the ...
and the Duke of Orléans made him a target of the
Reign of Terror The Reign of Terror (French: ''La Terreur'', literally "The Terror") was a period of the French Revolution when, following the creation of the French First Republic, First Republic, a series of massacres and Capital punishment in France, nu ...
, culminating in a period of imprisonment spanning at least eleven months. Saint-Georges, a contemporary of
Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (27 January 1756 – 5 December 1791) was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period (music), Classical period. Despite his short life, his rapid pace of composition and proficiency from an early age ...
, has at times been called the "Black Mozart." Some have criticized this appellation as racist.


Early life

Chevalier de Saint-Georges, also known as Joseph Bologne was born on 25 December 1745 in
Baillif Baillif (; ) is a communes of the Guadeloupe department, commune of Guadeloupe, an overseas departments and regions of France, overseas region and department of France located in the Lesser Antilles. Baillif is a suburb of Basse-Terre, the pref ...
,
Basse-Terre Basse-Terre (, ; ; ) is a communes of the Guadeloupe department, commune in the France, French overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department of Guadeloupe, in the Lesser Antilles. It is also the ''prefectures in France, pref ...
, the illegitimate son of a
settler A settler or a colonist is a person who establishes or joins a permanent presence that is separate to existing communities. The entity that a settler establishes is a Human settlement, settlement. A settler is called a pioneer if they are among ...
and planter and enslaver Georges Bologne de Saint-Georges and Nanon, a 17-year-old enslaved African who served within the family household. Bologne was legally married to Elisabeth Mérican (1722–1801) but acknowledged his son by Nanon and gave him his surname. In 1747, Georges Bologne was accused of murder and fled to France. The next year he was visited by his wife, Nanon, and his son. After two years he was granted a
royal pardon In the English and British tradition, the royal prerogative of mercy is one of the historic royal prerogatives of the British monarch, by which they can grant pardons (informally known as a royal pardon) to convicted persons. The royal prerog ...
and returned to Guadeloupe.Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de Saint-Georges [Saint-George], by Gabriel Banat (2001)
/ref> In August 1753, Joseph aged seven, was taken to France for his education, and installed in a
Jesuit The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
boarding school in
Angoulême Angoulême (; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''Engoulaeme''; ) is a small city in the southwestern French Departments of France, department of Charente, of which it is the Prefectures of France, prefecture. Located on a plateau overlooking a meander of ...
so his uncle Pierre could keep an eye on him. The couple accompanied by Nanon returned to Guadeloupe. Two years later, on 26 August 1755, listed as passengers on the ship ''L'Aimable Rose'', Bologne de Saint-Georges and only Nanon landed in
Bordeaux Bordeaux ( ; ; Gascon language, Gascon ; ) is a city on the river Garonne in the Gironde Departments of France, department, southwestern France. A port city, it is the capital of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, as well as the Prefectures in F ...
. Reunited with their son Joseph, they moved into a spacious apartment in the
6th Arrondissement The 6th arrondissement of Paris (''VIe arrondissement'') is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, it is referred to as ''le sixième''. The arrondissement, called Luxembourg in a reference to the seat of ...
(
Rive Gauche The Rive Gauche (; Left Bank) is the southern bank of the river Seine in Paris. Here the river flows roughly westward, cutting the city in two parts. When facing downstream, the southern bank is to the left, whereas the northern bank (or Rive Dr ...
). At the age of 13, Joseph was enrolled in a private fencing academy run by Texier de La Boëssière's in
Rue Saint-Honoré The Rue Saint-Honoré () is a street in the 1st arrondissement of Paris, France. It is named after the collegial , situated in ancient times within the cloisters of Saint-Honoré. The street, on which are located a number of museums and upscal ...
across from the
Oratoire du Louvre The Église réformée de l'Oratoire du Louvre, is a historic Protestant church located at 145 rue Saint-Honoré – 160 rue de Rivoli in the 1st arrondissement of Paris, across the street from the Louvre. It was founded as a Catholic church in 1 ...
, practising horse riding in the
Salle du Manège The indoor riding academy called the ''Salle du Manège'' () was the seat of the various national legislatures during most of the French Revolution, from 1789 to 1798. It was demolished in 1804 to make way for the rue de Rivoli. History ...
. According to Antoine la Boëssière, son of the Master, "At 15 his progress was so rapid, that he was already beating the best swordsmen, and at 17 he developed the greatest speed imaginable." Bologne was still a student when he defeated Alexandre Picard, a fencing master in
Rouen Rouen (, ; or ) is a city on the River Seine, in northwestern France. It is in the prefecture of Regions of France, region of Normandy (administrative region), Normandy and the Departments of France, department of Seine-Maritime. Formerly one ...
, who had been mocking him in public as "Boëssière's upstart
mulatto ( , ) is a Race (human categorization), racial classification that refers to people of mixed Sub-Saharan African, African and Ethnic groups in Europe, European ancestry only. When speaking or writing about a singular woman in English, the ...
". That match, bet on heavily by a public divided into partisans and opponents of slavery, was an important episode for Bologne. His father rewarded Joseph with a horse and buggy. His father, called "de Saint-Georges" after one of his
plantation Plantations are farms specializing in cash crops, usually mainly planting a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. Plantations, centered on a plantation house, grow crops including cotton, cannabis, tob ...
s in Guadeloupe, was a
commoner A commoner, also known as the ''common man'', ''commoners'', the ''common people'' or the ''masses'', was in earlier use an ordinary person in a community or nation who did not have any significant social status, especially a member of neither ...
until 1757, when he acquired the title of '' Gentilhomme ordinaire de la chambre du roi'' (Gentleman of the King's Chamber). On 5 April 1762, King
Louis XV Louis XV (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774), known as Louis the Beloved (), was King of France from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reached maturity (then defi ...
decreed that "" must register with the clerk of the Admiralty within two months. This was likely because at the end of the
Seven Years' War The Seven Years' War, 1756 to 1763, was a Great Power conflict fought primarily in Europe, with significant subsidiary campaigns in North America and South Asia. The protagonists were Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain and Kingdom of Prus ...
, blacks and free mulattos were seen as helpful as France was losing the war. Many leading "Enlightenment" thinkers argued that Africans and their descendants were inferior to White Europeans, as exemplified by Voltaire's views on race and slavery. After defeating Picard in 1761 or on graduating from the academy in 1766, Bologne was made a ''Gendarme du roi'' (officer of the king's bodyguard) in Versailles and a
chevalier Chevalier may refer to: Honours Belgium * a rank in the Belgian Order of the Crown * a rank in the Belgian Order of Leopold * a rank in the Belgian Order of Leopold II * a title in the Belgian nobility France * a rank in the French Legion d'h ...
. He then adopted the suffix of his father's plantation and was known as the "". In 1764, his father returned to Guadeloupe, which had been occupied by the British during the Seven Years' War, to look after his sugar plantations. The following year, he made a last will and testament where he left Joseph an annuity of 8,000 francs and an adequate pension to Nanon, who remained with their son in Paris. When Georges Bologne died in 1774 in Guadeloupe, he awarded his annuity and two plantations ( :fr:Habitation-Sucrerie Clairefontaine) to his legitimate daughter, Elisabeth Benedictine. The younger Saint-Georges was ineligible under French law for titles of nobility due to his
illegitimate Legitimacy, in traditional Western common law, is the status of a child born to parents who are legally married to each other, and of a child conceived before the parents obtain a legal divorce. Conversely, ''illegitimacy'', also known as ''b ...
status. Long before her death, Saint-George's mother recorded a testamentary deed dated 17 June 1778, in which she bequeathed all her belongings to her son as her universal
legatee A legatee, in the law of wills, is any individual or organization bequeathed any portion of a testator's estate. Usage Depending upon local custom, legatees may be called "devisees". Traditionally, "legatees" took personal property under will a ...
. She signed the document "Anne Danneveau" and her son signed as "Mr De Bolongna St-George". He continued to fence daily in the fencing venues of Paris. There he met the fencing masters
Domenico Angelo Domenico Angelo (1716 Livorno, Grand Duchy of Tuscany – 1802, Twickenham, England), was an Italian sword and fencing master who became the celebrated swordsman of mid-eighteenth English society. He earned fame not only with his brilliant skil ...
and his son
Henry Henry may refer to: People and fictional characters * Henry (given name), including lists of people and fictional characters * Henry (surname) * Henry, a stage name of François-Louis Henry (1786–1855), French baritone Arts and entertainmen ...
, the mysterious
Chevalier d'Éon Chevalier may refer to: Honours Belgium * a rank in the Belgian Order of the Crown * a rank in the Belgian Order of Leopold * a rank in the Belgian Order of Leopold II * a title in the Belgian nobility France * a rank in the French Legion d'h ...
and the teenage
Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (Louis Philippe Joseph; 13 April 17476 November 1793), was a French Prince of the Blood who supported the French Revolution. Louis Philippe II was born at the to Louis Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, Louis Phi ...
, all of whom would play a role in his future. On 17 May 1779,
John Adams John Adams (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was a Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801. Before Presidency of John Adams, his presidency, he was a leader of ...
made an entry in his diary that mistakenly described St.-George as the son of a governor rather than a
tax collector A tax collector (also called a taxman) is a person who collects unpaid taxes from other people or corporations on behalf of a government. The term could also be applied to those who audit tax returns or work for a revenue agency. Tax collec ...
: "
Lee Lee may refer to: Arts and entertainment * ''Lee'' (2007 film), Tamil-language sports action film * ''Lee'' (2017 film), Kannada-language action film * ''Lee'' (2023 film), biographical drama about Lee Miller, American photojournalist * ''L ...
gave Us an Account of St. George at Paris, a Molatto Man, Son of a former Governor of Guadaloupe, by a Negro Woman. ... He is the most accomplished Man in Europe in Riding, Running, Shooting, Fencing, Dancing, Musick. He will hit the Button, any Button on the Coat or Waistcoat of the greatest Masters. He will hit a Crown Piece in the Air with a Pistoll Ball."


Musical life and career

Little is known about Saint-Georges' early musical training; he was sent to Paris to begin his musical studies at age 7. Given his prodigious technique as an adult, Saint-Georges must have practiced the violin seriously as a child. Banat discounted
François-Joseph Fétis François-Joseph Fétis (; 25 March 1784 – 26 March 1871) was a Belgian musicologist, critic, teacher and composer. He was among the most influential music intellectuals in continental Europe. His enormous compilation of biographical data in the ...
's claim that Saint-Georges studied violin with
Jean-Marie Leclair Jean-Marie Leclair l'aîné (Jean-Marie Leclair the Elder) (10 May 1697 – 22 October 1764) was a French Baroque violinist and composer. He is considered to have founded the French violin school. His brothers, the lesser-known Jean-Marie ...
. Some of his technique was said to reveal the influence of
Pierre Gaviniès Pierre Gaviniès (11 May 1728 – 8 September 1800) was a French violinist, pedagogue and composer. Life Born in Bordeaux as the son of a luthier, Gaviniès was taken to Paris by his father in 1734. At age 13, he made his debut at the Concert Spi ...
. In 1764, when violinist
Antonio Lolli Antonio Lolli (c. 1725 – 10 August 1802) was an Italian violinist and composer. Life Lolli, who was born about 1725 in Bergamo, Italy, was one of the foremost Italian violinists of the 18th century. Between 1758 and 1774, he was solo vio ...
arrived in Paris, the Italian composed two concertos, Op. 2, for the chevalier. In 1766,
François-Joseph Gossec François-Joseph Gossec (; 17 January 1734 – 16 February 1829) was a French composer of operas, string quartets, symphonies, and choral works. Life and work The son of a small farmer, Gossec was born at the village of Vergnies, then a French ...
dedicated a set of six string trios, Op. 9, to Saint-Georges. Lolli may have worked with Bologne on his violin technique and Gossec on compositions. In 1769, the Parisian public was amazed to see Saint-Georges, well known for his fencing prowess, playing as a violinist in Gossec's new orchestra, in the . Saint-Georges's first composition Op. I, probably composed in 1770 or 1771, was a set of six string quartets, among the first in France, published by famed French publisher, composer, and teacher Antoine Bailleux. He was inspired by
Haydn Franz Joseph Haydn ( ; ; 31 March 173231 May 1809) was an Austrian composer of the Classical period (music), Classical period. He was instrumental in the development of chamber music such as the string quartet and piano trio. His contributions ...
's earliest quartets, brought from Vienna by Baron Bagge. Also in 1770,
Carl Stamitz Carl Philipp Stamitz (; baptized 8 May 17459 November 1801) was a German composer of partial Czech ancestry. He was the most prominent representative of the second generation of the Mannheim School. He was the eldest son of Johann Stamitz, a vio ...
dedicated his own set of six string quartets to Saint-Georges. By 1771, Gossec had appointed Saint-Georges as the concert master of the . In 1772, Saint-Georges debuted as a soloist with the . He played his first two violin concertos, Op. II, with Gossec conducting the orchestra. The concertos garnered a highly positive reception, and Saint-Georges, in particular, was said to be "appreciated not as much for his compositions as for his performances, enrapturing especially the feminine members of his audience". In 1773, when Gossec took over the direction of the prestigious , he designated Saint-Georges as the new conductor of the . After less than two years under Saint-George's' direction, the group was described by
Jean-Benjamin de La Borde Jean-Benjamin François de la Borde (5 September 1734 – 22 July 1794) was a French composer, writer on music and '' fermier général'' (farm tax collector). Born into an aristocratic family, he studied violin under Antoine Dauvergne and composi ...
as "performing with great precision and delicate nuances", who also said it had become "the best orchestra for symphonies in Paris, and perhaps in all of Europe". Saint-Georges was chosen as the dedicatee of another composition in 1778, violinist Giovanni Avoglio's set of string quartets, Op. 6. In 1781, after the detailing the deplorable state of the nation's finances was published, Saint Georges's had to be disbanded for lack of funding. Playwright, arms dealer, and (spy) Pierre Caron de Beaumarchais began to collect funds from private contributors, including many of the 's patrons, to send aid for the American cause. Saint-Georges turned to his friend and admirer, , for help. Responding to Saint-Georges's plea, Philippe revived the orchestra as part of the , an exclusive Freemason Lodge. This orchestra was made up of the finest musicians in Paris who could qualify as members in the Freemasons.Haydn Seek
/ref> Renamed , with practically the same personnel, it performed in the . In 1785, Count d'Ogny, the music coordinator of the Olympic Lodge since 1782 and a member of its cello section, commissioned Haydn to compose six new symphonies for the Concert Olympique. He asked Saint-Georges to write to Haydn and settle the details. Conducted by Saint-Georges, Haydn's Paris symphonies were first performed at the Salle des Gardes-Suisses of the
Tuileries The Tuileries Palace (, ) was a palace in Paris which stood on the right bank of the Seine, directly in the west-front of the Louvre Palace. It was the Parisian residence of most French monarchs, from Henri IV to Napoleon III, until it was b ...
, a much larger hall, in order to accommodate the huge public demand to hear Haydn's new works. Queen
Marie Antoinette Marie Antoinette (; ; Maria Antonia Josefa Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last List of French royal consorts, queen of France before the French Revolution and the establishment of the French First Republic. She was the ...
attended some of Saint-Georges's concerts at the Hôtel de Soubise, arriving sometimes without notice, so the orchestra wore court attire for all its performances. In 1786 the musicians played "in embroidered suits, lace cuffs, swords at their sides and feathered hats on the benches. Such an orchestra was a sight to behold, and no less pleasant to listen to." Brilliant technical effects were made possible by the new
bow BOW as an acronym may refer to: * Bag of waters, amniotic sac * Bartow Municipal Airport (IATA:BOW), a public use airport near Bartow, Florida, United States * Basic operating weight of an aircraft * BOW counties, made of Brown, Outagamie, and Winn ...
perfected by Francois Tourte.


Operas

Early in 1776, the Académie royale de Musique, the
Paris Opéra The Paris Opera ( ) is the primary opera and ballet company of France. It was founded in 1669 by Louis XIV as the , and shortly thereafter was placed under the leadership of Jean-Baptiste Lully and officially renamed the , but continued to be kn ...
, was struggling financially and artistically. Saint-Georges was proposed as the next director of the opera. (Perhaps by Denis-Pierre-Jean Papillon de la Ferté, intendant of the
Menus-Plaisirs du Roi The Menus-Plaisirs du Roi () was, in the organisation of the France, French royal household under the Ancien Régime, the department of the Maison du Roi responsible for the "lesser pleasures of the King", which meant in practice that it was in ...
but he does not mention Saint-Georges at all.) As the creator of the first disciplined French orchestra since
Lully Jean-Baptiste Lully ( – 22 March 1687) was a French composer, dancer and instrumentalist of Italian birth, who is considered a master of the French Baroque music style. Best known for his operas, he spent most of his life working in the court o ...
, Saint-Georges was the obvious choice. But, according to Baron von Grimm's ''Correspondence litteraire, philosophique et critique'', three of the Opéra's leading ladies (
Marie-Madeleine Guimard Marie-Madeleine Guimard (; 27 December 1743 — 4 May 1816) was a French ballerina who dominated the Parisian stage during the reign of Louis XVI. For twenty-five years she was the star of the Paris Opera. She made herself even more famous by her ...
,
Rosalie Levasseur Marie-Rose-(Claude-)Josephe Levasseur (or Le Vasseur), known in her day as Mademoiselle Rosalie, and later commonly referred to as Rosalie Levasseur (8 October 1749 – 6 May 1826) was a French soprano who is best remembered for her work with ...
and
Sophie Arnould Sophie Arnould (13 February 1740, in Paris, France – 18 October 1802, in Paris, France) was a French operatic soprano. Biography Born Magdeleine Sophie Arnould, she studied in Paris with Marie Fel and La Clairon, and made her stage debut a ...
) petitioned the Queen in January in opposition to his appointment, saying "that their honor and delicate conscience could never allow them to submit to the orders of a
mulatto ( , ) is a Race (human categorization), racial classification that refers to people of mixed Sub-Saharan African, African and Ethnic groups in Europe, European ancestry only. When speaking or writing about a singular woman in English, the ...
". The position was given to
Antoine Dauvergne Antoine Dauvergne (3 October 1713 – 11 February 1797) was a French composer and violinist. Dauvergne was born in Moulins, Allier. He served as master of the ''Chambre du roi'', director of the Concert Spirituel from 1762 to 1771, and direc ...
instead. To defuse the brewing scandal,
Louis XVI Louis XVI (Louis-Auguste; ; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. The son of Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765), Louis, Dauphin of France (son and heir- ...
, then only one year on the throne, took the Opéra back from the city of Paris to be managed by his Intendant of
Menus-Plaisirs du Roi The Menus-Plaisirs du Roi () was, in the organisation of the France, French royal household under the Ancien Régime, the department of the Maison du Roi responsible for the "lesser pleasures of the King", which meant in practice that it was in ...
. Marie-Antoinette preferred to hold her musicales in the salon of her private apartment in the palace or in the recently established
Théâtre de la Reine The Théâtre de la Reine (Queen's Theater) ou Théâtre du Trianon (Trianon Theater) is a theater built for Queen Marie-Antoinette by the architect Richard Mique from June 1778 to July 1779. It is located in the grounds of the Petit Trianon, i ...
in the
gardens of Versailles The Gardens of Versailles ( ) occupy part of what was once the ''Domaine royal de Versailles'', the royal demesne of the Palace of Versailles, château of Versailles. Situated to the west of the Palace of Versailles, palace, the gardens cover so ...
. She limited the audience to her intimate circle and a few musicians, among them the Chevalier de Saint-Georges. "Admitted to perform music with the Queen," Saint-Georges probably played his violin sonatas, with the Queen playing the
fortepiano A fortepiano is an early piano. In principle, the word "fortepiano" can designate any piano dating from the invention of the instrument by Bartolomeo Cristofori in 1700 up to the early 19th century. Most typically, however, it is used to ref ...
. The singers' petition may have ended Saint-Georges's aspirations to higher positions as a musician. Over the next two years, he published two more violin concertos and a pair of ''Symphonies concertantes''. Thereafter, except for his final set of quartets (Op. 14, 1785), Saint-Georges abandoned composing instrumental music in favor of opera. He was still acquainted and remained friendly with several composers (notably,
Salieri Antonio Salieri (18 August 17507 May 1825) was an Italian composer and teacher of the classical period. He was born in Legnago, south of Verona, in the Republic of Venice, and spent his adult life and career as a subject of the Habsburg monarc ...
, Gretry, and
Gluck Christoph Willibald ( Ritter von) Gluck (; ; 2 July 1714 – 15 November 1787) was a composer of Italian and French opera in the early classical period. Born in the Upper Palatinate and raised in Bohemia, both part of the Holy Roman Empire at ...
). ''Ernestine'', Saint-Georges's first opera, with a
libretto A libretto (From the Italian word , ) is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or Musical theatre, musical. The term ''libretto'' is also sometimes used to refer to th ...
by
Pierre Choderlos de Laclos Pierre Ambroise François Choderlos de Laclos (; 18 October 1741 – 5 September 1803) was a French novelist, official, Freemason and army general, best known for writing the epistolary novel '' Les Liaisons dangereuses'' (''Dangerous Liaisons ...
, the notorious author of ''
Les Liaisons dangereuses ''Les Liaisons dangereuses'' (; English: ''Dangerous Liaisons'') is a French epistolary novel by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, first published in four volumes by Durand Neveu on March 23, 1782. It is the story of the Marquise Isabelle de Merteu ...
'', was performed on 19 July 1777, at the
Comédie-Italienne Comédie-Italienne () or Théâtre-Italien () are French names which have been used to refer to Italian-language theatre and opera when performed in France. The earliest recorded visits by Italian players were ''commedia dell'arte'' companies ...
. It did not survive its premiere. The critics liked the music, but panned the weak libretto, which was then usually judged more important than the music. The Queen attended with her entourage to support Saint-Georges's opera but, after the audience kept echoing a character cracking his whip and crying "Ohé, Ohé," the Queen gave it the coup de grace by calling to her driver: "to Versailles, Ohé!" After the failure of the opera, Saint-Georges was in financial trouble. Madame de Montesson, the
morganatic Morganatic marriage, sometimes called a left-handed marriage, is a marriage between people of unequal social rank, which in the context of royalty or other inherited title prevents the principal's position or privileges being passed to the spous ...
wife of the Duc d'Orléans, realized her ambition to engage Saint-Georges as music director of her fashionable private theater. From 5 July to 11 September 1778, Saint-Georges lived at Grimm's residence in Chaussée d'Antin just as did
Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (27 January 1756 – 5 December 1791) was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period (music), Classical period. Despite his short life, his rapid pace of composition and proficiency from an early age ...
who moved in after
his mother ''His Mother'' is a 1912 American silent film produced by Kalem Company. It was directed by Sidney Olcott with Gene Gauntier and Jack J. Clark in the leading roles. It was one of more than a dozen films produced by the Kalem Company filmed in Ir ...
died;{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=171 both left in September. The Duc d'Orléans appointed Saint-Georges as ''Lieutenant de la chasse'' of his vast hunting grounds at Raincy, with an additional salary of 2000
Livres Livre may refer to: Currency * French livre, one of a number of obsolete units of currency of France * Livre tournois, one particular obsolete unit of currency of France * Livre parisis, another particular obsolete unit of currency of France * F ...
a year. "Saint-Georges the mulatto so strong, so adroit, was one of the hunters..."{{sfn, Vigée-Lebrun, 1869, p=77 Saint-Georges wrote and rehearsed his second opera, appropriately named ''La Chasse'' (The Hunt) at Raincy. At its premiere in the ''Théâtre Italien'', "The public received the work with loud applause. Vastly superior compared with ''Ernestine'' ... there is every reason to encourage him to continue riting operas" ''La Chasse'' was repeated at her Majesty's request at the royal chateau at Marly.{{sfn, Bardin, 2006, p=112 Saint-Georges's most successful ''opéra comique'' was '' L'amant anonyme'', which was premiered in 1780, with a libretto based on a play of the same name by Madame de Montesson's niece,
Madame de Genlis Madame may refer to: * Madam, civility title or form of address for women, derived from the French * Madam (prostitution), a term for a woman who is engaged in the business of procuring prostitutes, usually the manager of a brothel * ''Madame'' ( ...
.{{Efn, ''L'Amant Anonyme'' is Saint-Georges's sole opera to be found intact, and is listed in BnF, ''section musique, côte 4076''{{citation needed, date=November 2024 In 1785, the Duke of Orléans died. Madame de Montesson, having been forbidden by the King to mourn him, shuttered their mansion, closed her theater, and retired to a convent for about a year. With his patrons gone, Saint-Georges lost not only his positions but also his apartment. His friend, Louis Philippe, now Duke of Orléans, presented him with a small flat in the
Palais-Royal The Palais-Royal () is a former French royal palace located on Rue Saint-Honoré in the 1st arrondissement of Paris. The screened entrance court faces the Place du Palais-Royal, opposite the Louvre Palace, Louvre. Originally called the Palais-Ca ...
, opposite the Louvre. Saint-Georges was drawn into the whirlpool of political and social activity around Philippe and Brissot de Warville, admirers of the
British parliamentary system The Westminster system, or Westminster model, is a type of parliamentary government that incorporates a series of procedures for operating a legislature, first developed in England. Key aspects of the system include an executive branch made up ...
and the
constitutional monarchy Constitutional monarchy, also known as limited monarchy, parliamentary monarchy or democratic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in making decisions. ...
, the main opposition to the French absolute monarchy. Meanwhile, the Duke's ambitious plans for re-constructing the Palais-Royal left the ''Orchestre Olympique'' without a home and Saint-Georges unemployed. Seeing his protégé at loose ends and recalling that the
Prince of Wales Prince of Wales (, ; ) is a title traditionally given to the male heir apparent to the History of the English monarchy, English, and later, the British throne. The title originated with the Welsh rulers of Kingdom of Gwynedd, Gwynedd who, from ...
often expressed a wish to meet the legendary fencer, Philippe approved Brissot's plan to dispatch Saint-Georges to London. He believed it was a way to ensure the Regent-in-waiting's support of Philippe as the future "Regent" of France. But Brissot had a secret agenda as well. He considered Saint-Georges, a "man of color", the ideal person to contact his fellow
abolitionists Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the political movement to end slavery and liberate enslaved individuals around the world. The first country to fully outlaw slavery was France in 1315, but it was later used in its colonies. T ...
in London and ask their advice about Brissot's plans for '' Les Amis des Noirs'' (Friends of the Blacks) modeled on the English
Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, also known as the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, and sometimes referred to as the Abolition Society or Anti-Slavery Society, was a British abolitionist group formed on ...
.{{sfn, Hochschild, 2005, pp=87, 220


Social life in Paris

At the fencing academy, Joseph met Chevalier Lamotte, who became a horn player in the King's orchestra (till October 1789). According to Louise Fusil, a singer, the two were inseparable; she compared them with
Pylades In Greek mythology, Pylades (; Ancient Greek: Πυλάδης) was a Phocis (ancient region), Phocian prince as the son of King Strophius and Anaxibia who is the daughter of Atreus and sister of Agamemnon and Menelaus. He is mostly known for his ...
and his cousin
Orestes In Greek mythology, Orestes or Orestis (; ) was the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, and the brother of Electra and Iphigenia. He was also known by the patronymic Agamemnonides (), meaning "son of Agamemnon." He is the subject of several ...
.{{sfn, Fusil, 1841, p={{page needed, date=November 2024 According to her Saint-Georges was: "... admired for his fencing and riding prowess, he served as a model to young sportsmen ... who formed a court around him."{{sfn, Fusil, 1841, p=142{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=305 A fine dancer, Saint-Georges was invited to balls and welcomed in the salons of highborn ladies. "He was often indebted to music for liaisons in which love played a part. Gifted with vivid expression he loved and made himself loved."{{sfn, La Boëssière, 1818, p=xxj During his time at the opera and before the revolution, Saint-Georges became involved with many women in Paris society. Joseph Bologne is supposed to have had at least one long-term, serious romantic relationship. One potential suitor of his was the famous, rich and clever dancer
Marie-Madeleine Guimard Marie-Madeleine Guimard (; 27 December 1743 — 4 May 1816) was a French ballerina who dominated the Parisian stage during the reign of Louis XVI. For twenty-five years she was the star of the Paris Opera. She made herself even more famous by her ...
, whose advances he declined.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=225 She became the lover of
Papillon de la Ferté Papillon, papillons, or le papillon may refer to: Animals * Butterfly * Papillon (dog), a dog breed * Papillon (horse), a racehorse, winner of the 2000 Grand National Film and television * Papillon, a fictional character in the anime series '' ...
. Having been spurned, and with great influence on the Queen's court, La Guimard, treasurer of the Opera, owner of
Hôtel Guimard The Hôtel Guimard () was a private home located at 9 rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin in Paris, France. Commissioned by the Opera dancer Marie-Madeleine Guimard, it was designed by the architect Claude-Nicolas Ledoux in the neoclassical style, th ...
which included a 500-seat theatre, would come to play a pivotal role in the petition that would deny Joseph's ambition to become the director of the
Paris Opera The Paris Opera ( ) is the primary opera and ballet company of France. It was founded in 1669 by Louis XIV as the , and shortly thereafter was placed under the leadership of Jean-Baptiste Lully and officially renamed the , but continued to be kn ...
from ever coming to fruition.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=181 Pierre Le Fèvre de Beauvray, a gossip writer at the time, and author of a work entitled "''Journal d'un bourgeois de Popincourt''", attributes to Saint-Georges a love affair with the Marquise Marie-Josephine de Montalembert, salonnière, and novelist, the young wife of an old general. Her husband (
Marc René, marquis de Montalembert Marc René, marquis de Montalembert (16 July 1714 – 29 March 1800) was a French military engineer and writer, known for his work on fortifications. Life He was born at Angoulême, and entered the French Army in 1732. He fought in the War of t ...
) was a general of military engineering in the Queen's Court; his wife was said to have been drawn to the young composer.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=226-231 Their affair was discovered and it was rumored by
Louis Petit de Bachaumont Louis Petit de Bachaumont () (June 2, 1690 – April 29, 1771) was a French writer, whose historical interest has been connected largely to his alleged role in the gossipy '' Mémoires secrets pour servir à l'histoire de la République des Lett ...
they had a child.{{Efn, In 1779, the Marquis and
Choderlos de Laclos Pierre Ambroise François Choderlos de Laclos (; 18 October 1741 – 5 September 1803) was a French novelist, official, Freemason and army general, best known for writing the epistolary novel ''Les Liaisons dangereuses'' (''Dangerous Liaisons'') ...
lived on
Île-d'Aix Île-d'Aix () is a communes of France, commune in the departments of France, French department of Charente-Maritime, region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine (before 2015: Poitou-Charentes), off the west coast of France. It occupies the territory of the sma ...
involved in the construction of fortifications against the British.{{citation needed, date=November 2024


St. Georges assaulted

One evening, around midnight, Saint-Georges was attacked in the streets of Paris when returning home (in the
Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin The Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin () is a street in the 9th arrondissement of Paris. It runs north-northwest from the Boulevard des Italiens to the Église de la Sainte-Trinité, Paris, Église de la Sainte-Trinité. History In the 17th century, ...
). In his Secret Memoirs, Bachaumont mentions that the attack took place on the night of 1 May 1779. Saint-Georges and his friend valiantly defended themselves and were providentially saved by the
night watch Night Watch or Nightwatch may refer to: Being on duty at night * The nighttime shift worked by a security guard (night watchman) * Watchman (law enforcement), organized groups of men to deter criminal activity and provide law enforcement * One of ...
and its men-at-arms: {{Blockquote, « M. de Saint Georges is a mulatto, that is to say the son of a negress Recently, during the night, he was attacked by six men, he was with one of his friends, they defended themselves to the best of their ability against sticks with which the fellows wanted to knock them down; there is even talk of a pistol shot which was heard: the lookout occurred & prevented the consequences of this assassination, - so that Mr. de Saint Georges is freed for bruises & minor injuries; he even shows himself already in the world. Several of the killers have been arrested. M. le Duc d'Orléans wrote to M. le Noir, as soon as he was informed of the fact, to recommend to him the most exact research, and that a striking justice be done on the culprits. After 24 hours Mr. the Duke of Orléans was asked not to interfere in this affair, and the prisoners, who were recognized as policemen, among whom was a certain Desbrugnieres, so renowned in the affair of the Comte de Morangiès, were released, which gives rise to a thousand conjectures. » It was suggested that the Marquis de Montalembert, eager to avenge his honour and punish the "seducer" of his wife by setting up a night operation, might have been behind the nocturnal aggression.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=229-231 According to Claude Ribbe the attackers were secret policemen from Versailles; the duke of Orléans was asked not to interfere.{{sfn, Ribbe, 2004, p=143 Pierre Bardin exhumed from the archives of the Commissaire au Châtelet a document which is not published. He concluded that there was an "error on the person" that day. It was not Saint-George who was targeted by a scorned husband, but his friend baron Gillier, comte de Saint-Julien? The sponsor of this aggression would be a famous actor, named Gourgaud said Dugazon, the husband of
Louise-Rosalie Lefebvre Louise-Rosalie Lefebvre (18 June 1755 – 22 September 1821), also known as Madame Dugazon, was a French operatic mezzo-soprano, actress and dancer. Born in Berlin as the daughter of a dancing master at the court of Frederick II of Prussia, she ...
, gifted vocalist, which had made its debut in Paris in "Ernestine" the opera by Saint-Georges.


Two trips to London

In Spring 1787, Saint-Georges stayed in London with fencing masters
Domenico Angelo Domenico Angelo (1716 Livorno, Grand Duchy of Tuscany – 1802, Twickenham, England), was an Italian sword and fencing master who became the celebrated swordsman of mid-eighteenth English society. He earned fame not only with his brilliant skil ...
and
Henry Henry may refer to: People and fictional characters * Henry (given name), including lists of people and fictional characters * Henry (surname) * Henry, a stage name of François-Louis Henry (1786–1855), French baritone Arts and entertainmen ...
, his son, whom he knew as an apprentice from early years in Paris.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=284 They arranged exhibition matches for him, including one at
Carlton House Carlton House, sometimes Carlton Palace, was a mansion in Westminster, best known as the town residence of George IV, during the regency era and his time as prince regent, before he took the throne as king. It faced the south side of Pall M ...
, before the Prince of Wales.{{sfn, Angelo, 1834, p=24 After sparring with him, ''carte'' and ''tierce'', the prince matched Saint-Georges with several renowned masters. One included ''La Chevalière'' d'Éon, aged 59, in a voluminous black
frock Frock has been used since Middle English as the name for an article of clothing, typically coat (clothing), coat-like, for men and women. Terminology In British English and in Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth countries the word may be us ...
. A painting by
Abbé Alexandre-Auguste Robineau Alexandre-Auguste Robineau, born April 23, 1747 in Paris where he died January 13, 1828, is a French Painting, painter and musician, Priest-Catholic. Biographie Son of the painter Charles-Jean Robineau, Alexandre-Auguste Robineau studied painting a ...
, violinist-composer, and painter, showed the Prince and his entourage watching Mlle D'Éon score a hit on Saint-Georges, giving rise to rumors that the Frenchman allowed it out of gallantry for a lady. But, as Saint-Georges had fenced with
dragoon Dragoons were originally a class of mounted infantry, who used horses for mobility, but dismounted to fight on foot. From the early 17th century onward, dragoons were increasingly also employed as conventional cavalry and trained for combat wi ...
Captain d'Éon in Paris, he probably was deferring to her age. Saint-Georges played one of Robineau's concertos at the
Anacreontic Society The Anacreontic Society was a popular gentlemen's club of amateur musicians in London founded in the mid-18th century. These barristers, doctors, and other professional men named their club after the Greek court poet Anacreon, who lived in the 6t ...
. It is supposed he delivered
Brissot Jacques Pierre Brissot (, 15 January 1754 – 31 October 1793), also known as Brissot de Warville, was a French journalist, abolitionist, and revolutionary leading the faction of Girondins (initially called Brissotins) at the National Conventio ...
's request to translate the publications of the abolitionists MPs
William Wilberforce William Wilberforce (24 August 1759 – 29 July 1833) was a British politician, philanthropist, and a leader of the movement to abolish the Atlantic slave trade. A native of Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire, he began his political career in 1780 ...
,
John Wilkes John Wilkes (17 October 1725 – 26 December 1797) was an English Radicalism (historical), radical journalist and politician, as well as a magistrate, essayist and soldier. He was first elected a Member of Parliament in 1757. In the Middlese ...
, and Reverend
Thomas Clarkson Thomas Clarkson (28 March 1760 – 26 September 1846) was an English abolitionist, and a leading campaigner against the slave trade in the British Empire. He helped found the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade (also known ...
into French. Before Saint-Georges left England,
Mather Brown Mather Brown (baptized 11 October 1761 – 25 May 1831) was an American painter who was born in Boston, Massachusetts and was active in England. Early life and education Brown was the son of Gawen and Elizabeth (Byles) Brown, and descended from ...
painted his portrait and presented it to Henry.{{sfn, Angelo, 1834, p=63 Asked by Mrs Angelo if it was a true likeness, Saint-Georges replied: "Alas, Madame it is frightfully so."{{sfn, Angelo, 1830, p=538 Back in Paris, he completed and produced his latest ''opéra comique'', ''La Fille Garçon'', at the Théâtre des Italiens. The critics found the libretto wanting. "The piece, assustained only by the music of Monsieur de Saint Georges... The success he obtained should serve as an encouragement to continue enriching this theatre with his productions." Meanwhile, having nearly completed the reconstruction of the
Palais-Royal The Palais-Royal () is a former French royal palace located on Rue Saint-Honoré in the 1st arrondissement of Paris. The screened entrance court faces the Place du Palais-Royal, opposite the Louvre Palace, Louvre. Originally called the Palais-Ca ...
, the Duke had opened several new theaters. The smallest was the Théâtre Beaujolais, a marionette theater for children, named after his youngest son, the Duc de Beaujolais. The lead singers of the Opéra provided the voices for the puppets. Saint-Georges wrote the music of ''Le Marchand de Marrons'' (The Chestnut Vendor) for this theater, with a libretto by
Madame de Genlis Madame may refer to: * Madam, civility title or form of address for women, derived from the French * Madam (prostitution), a term for a woman who is engaged in the business of procuring prostitutes, usually the manager of a brothel * ''Madame'' ( ...
, Philippe's former mistress and then confidential adviser. While Saint-Georges was away, the ''Concert Olympique'' had resumed performing at the
Hôtel de Soubise The Hôtel de Soubise () is a city mansion '' entre cour et jardin''. It is located at 60 Rue des Francs-Bourgeois in the 3rd arrondissement of Paris, France. History The Hôtel de Soubise was built as an ''hôtel particulier'' for the Prin ...
, the old hall of the ''Amateurs''. The Italian violinist Jean-Baptiste Viotti had been appointed as conductor.{{sfn, Brenet, 1900, p=365 On 5 May 1789, the opening day of the fateful Estates General, Saint-Georges, standing in the gallery with Laclos, heard
Jacques Necker Jacques Necker (; 30 September 1732 – 9 April 1804) was a Republic of Geneva, Genevan banker and statesman who served as List of Finance Ministers of France, finance minister for Louis XVI of France, Louis XVI. He was a reformer, but his innov ...
, Louis XVI's minister of finance, saying, "The
slave trade Slave trade may refer to: * History of slavery - overview of slavery It may also refer to slave trades in specific countries, areas: * Al-Andalus slave trade * Atlantic slave trade ** Brazilian slave trade ** Bristol slave trade ** Danish sl ...
is a barbarous practice and must be eliminated."{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=321
Choderlos de Laclos Pierre Ambroise François Choderlos de Laclos (; 18 October 1741 – 5 September 1803) was a French novelist, official, Freemason and army general, best known for writing the epistolary novel ''Les Liaisons dangereuses'' (''Dangerous Liaisons'') ...
, who replaced Brissot as Philippe's chief of staff, intensified Brissot's campaign to promote Philippe as an alternative to the monarchy. On 14 July 1789, the fall of the Bastille took place, starting the French Revolution. As Saint-Georges was seen as a
mulatto ( , ) is a Race (human categorization), racial classification that refers to people of mixed Sub-Saharan African, African and Ethnic groups in Europe, European ancestry only. When speaking or writing about a singular woman in English, the ...
but actually a
free man of color In the context of the history of slavery in the Americas, free people of color (; ) were primarily people of mixed African, European, and Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Native American descent who were not enslaved. However, the term also ...
, he was affected by the racism and racist laws in pre-Revolutionary France. After the
abolition of feudalism in France One of the central events of the French Revolution was the abolition of feudalism, and the old rules, taxes, and privileges left over from the ''ancien régime''. The National Constituent Assembly, after deliberating on the night of 4 August 17 ...
Saint-Georges refrained from using his title "
chevalier Chevalier may refer to: Honours Belgium * a rank in the Belgian Order of the Crown * a rank in the Belgian Order of Leopold * a rank in the Belgian Order of Leopold II * a title in the Belgian nobility France * a rank in the French Legion d'h ...
", and was addressed as "citoyen". On 26 August 1789, the assembly declared equal rights to all French people but Saint-Georges wasn't there.


Second trip

Early August Saint-Georges was sent by Laclos on a secret mission to London for his employer, the Duke of Orléans, Bardin suggests.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=339, 342-351 (His connections to the court may have played a role to leave the country.) Saint-Georges stayed at ''Grenier's'' an expensive hotel on
Jermyn Street Jermyn Street is a One-way traffic, one-way street in the St James's area of the City of Westminster in London, England. It is to the south of, parallel, and adjacent to Piccadilly. Jermyn Street is known as a street for gentlemen's-clothing r ...
which later became patronized by French refugees. Saint-Georges had the idea of establishing in England and was entertaining himself lavishly.{{sfn, Angelo, 1834, pp=24–28 His assignment was to stay close to the Prince of Wales, known for his excessive lifestyle. On 15 August, the Prince took Saint-Georges to his Marine Pavilion in Brighton for a fencing match.{{sfn, Angelo, 1830, p=450 He also took him fox hunting and to the races at Newmarket. After the
Women's March on Versailles The Women's March on Versailles, also known as the Black March, the October Days or simply the March on Versailles, was one of the earliest and most significant events of the French Revolution. The march began among women in the marketplaces of ...
, the Duke was accused of initiating it.
Marquis de La Fayette Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier de La Fayette, Marquis de La Fayette (; 6 September 1757 – 20 May 1834), known in the United States as Lafayette (), was a French military officer and politician who volunteered to join the Conti ...
, probably jealous of the Duke's popularity, persuaded the king to send him on a mission to England.{{sfn, Elliott, 1910, pp=14-15 When he arrived on 14 October, he became the Prince's regular companion. They amused themselves with horse racing, young women, and champagne;{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=354 nevertheless Saint-Georges was invited separately.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=344-346 On his first trip Saint-Georges passed Brissot's request to the British
abolitionists Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the political movement to end slavery and liberate enslaved individuals around the world. The first country to fully outlaw slavery was France in 1315, but it was later used in its colonies. T ...
, they complied by translating their publications into French for his fledgling ''
Société des amis des Noirs The Society of the Friends of the Blacks (''Société des amis des Noirs'' or ''Amis des noirs'') was a French abolitionist society founded by Jacques Pierre Brissot and Étienne Clavière and directly inspired by the Society for Effecting the ...
''. Banat assumes Saint-Georges met with them again,{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=281 but
Adam Hochschild Adam Hochschild ( ; born October 5, 1942) is an American author, journalist, historian and lecturer. His best-known works include ''King Leopold's Ghost'' (1998), ''To End All Wars: A Story of Loyalty and Rebellion, 1914–1918'' (2011), '' Bur ...
in ''
Bury the Chains ''Bury the Chains: Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an Empire's Slaves'' is a non-fiction book by Adam Hochschild that was first published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Houghton Mifflin on January 7, 2005. The book is a narrative histo ...
'' did not find any trace of this.{{citation needed, date=November 2024
Abbé Grégoire ''Abbé'' (from Latin , in turn from Greek , , from Aramaic ''abba'', a title of honour, literally meaning "the father, my father", emphatic state of ''abh'', "father") is the French word for an abbot. It is also the title used for lower-ranki ...
regretted Saint-Georges never joined the radical clubs, like the Jacobins, or the ''Société des amis des Noirs''.{{sfn, Saint-Georges, 1790, p=4 It appears Saint-Georges was more a moderate democrat, influenced by the ideas of the Patriotic Society of 1789.{{sfn, Saint-Georges, 1790, p={{page needed, date=November 2024 In late June 1790,
Philippe Égalité Philippe is a masculine given name, cognate to Philip, and sometimes also a surname. The name may refer to: * Philippe of Belgium (born 1960), King of the Belgians (2013–present) * Philippe (footballer) (born 2000), Brazilian footballer * Prince ...
, dubbed "The Red Duke" in London, realized that his "mission" there was a ruse used by the French king to get him out of the country. Philippe clung to a vague promise made by King Louis to make him Regent of the
Southern Netherlands The Southern Netherlands, also called the Catholic Netherlands, were the parts of the Low Countries belonging to the Holy Roman Empire which were at first largely controlled by Habsburg Spain (Spanish Netherlands, 1556–1714) and later by the ...
. Saint-Georges was unable to pay his bill at ''Grenier's'' but found a solution and organized a match.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=351, 353 The next day they traveled to Belgium. On their journey, Saint-Georges was attacked again: {{blockquote, "Early in July, walking home from
Greenwich Greenwich ( , , ) is an List of areas of London, area in south-east London, England, within the Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county of Greater London, east-south-east of Charing Cross. Greenwich is notable for its maritime hi ...
, a man armed with a pistol demanded his purse. The Chevalier disarmed the man... but when four more rogues hidden until then attacked him, he put them all out of commission. M. de Saint Georges received only some contusions which did not keep him from going on that night to play music in the company of friends." The nature of the attack, with four attackers emerging after the first one made sure they had the right victim, has been claimed to be an assassination attempt disguised as a hold-up, arranged by the "Slave Trade" to put an end to his abolitionist activities.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=294 In Brussels the people wanted a United Belgium Republic and rejected Philippe. Not long after the Duke went back to Paris, but Saint-Georges decided to join a fencing tournament in Lille.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=349, 355


Lille

"On Thursday 8 July 1790, in Lille's municipal ballroom, the famous Saint-Georges was the principal antagonist in a brilliant fencing tournament. Though ill, he fought with that grace that is his trademark. Lightning is no faster than his arms and in spite of running a fever, he demonstrated astonishing vigor." Two days later looking worse but in need of funds, he offered another assault, this one for the officers of the garrison. But his illness proved so serious that it sent him to bed for six long weeks.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=359 The diagnosis according to medical science at the time was "
brain fever Brain fever (or cerebral fever) is an outdated medical term that was used as a synonym for phrensy, beginning in early 19th century medical literature. Supposedly the brain becomes inflamed and causes a variety of symptoms, most notably mental co ...
". Unconscious for days, he was taken in and nursed by some kind citizens of Lille. While still bedridden Saint-Georges began to compose an opera for Lille's theater company. Calling it ''Guillome tout Coeur, ou les amis du village'', he dedicated it to the citizens of Lille. "''Guillaume'' is an opera in one act. The music by Saint-George is full of sweet warmth of motion and spirit...Its ndividualpieces are distinguished by their melodic lines and the vigor of their harmony. The public...made the hall resound with its justly deserved applause."{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=359 It was to be his last opera, lost, including its libretto. He participated in local events and took charge of the music.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=364-367 The singer Louise Fusil, who had idolized Saint-Georges since she was a girl of 15, wrote: "In 1791, I stopped in
Amiens Amiens (English: or ; ; , or ) is a city and Communes of France, commune in northern France, located north of Paris and south-west of Lille. It is the capital of the Somme (department), Somme Departments of France, department in the region ...
where St. Georges and Lamothe were waiting for me, committed to giving some concerts over the Easter holidays. We were to repeat them in
Tournai Tournai ( , ; ; ; , sometimes Anglicisation (linguistics), anglicised in older sources as "Tournay") is a city and Municipalities in Belgium, municipality of Wallonia located in the Hainaut Province, Province of Hainaut, Belgium. It lies by ...
in June.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=305, 360 But the French refugees assembled in that town just across the border, could not abide the
Créole Creole may refer to: Anthropology * Alaskan Creole people, people descended from the inhabitants of colonial Alaska before it became a part of the United States during the period of Russian rule * Creole peoples, ethnic groups which originate ...
they believed to be an agent of the despised Duke of Orléans. St. Georges was even advised y its commandantnot to stop there for long."{{sfn, Fusil, 1841, pp=144–145 According to a report by a local newspaper: "The dining room of the hotel where St. Georges, a citizen of France, was also staying, refused to serve him, but he remained perfectly calm; remarkable for a man with his means to defend himself."{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=369 Fusil describes the scenario of Saint-Georges' "Love and Death of the Poor Little Bird," a programmatic piece for violin alone, which he was constantly entreated to play, especially by the ladies. Its three parts depicted the little bird greeting the spring; passionately pursuing the object of his love, who alas, has chosen another; its voice grows weaker then, after the last sigh, it is stilled forever. This kind of program music or sound painting of scenarios such as love scenes, tempests, or battles complete with cannonades and the cries of the wounded, conveyed by a lone violin, was by that time nearly forgotten. Fusil places his improvisational style on a par with her subsequent musical idol,
Hector Berlioz Louis-Hector Berlioz (11 December 1803 – 8 March 1869) was a French Romantic music, Romantic composer and conductor. His output includes orchestral works such as the ''Symphonie fantastique'' and ''Harold en Italie, Harold in Italy'' ...
: "We did not know then this expressive ...depiction a dramatic scene, which Mr. Berlioz later revealed to us... making us feel an emotion that identifies us with the subject."{{sfn, Fusil, 1841, pp=143–144{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=358


Military career

On 22 May 1790 the right to declare war was given to the national assembly. St. Georges decided to serve the Revolution as a citizen-soldier. In September 1790, having recovered, Saint-Georges was one of the first in Lille to join its ''
Garde Nationale The National Guard () is a French military, gendarmerie, and police reserve force, active in its current form since 2016 but originally founded in 1789 during the French Revolution. It was founded as separate from the French Army and exis ...
''.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=360, 373 But not even his military duties in the ''Garde Nationale'' could prevent St. Georges from giving concerts. Once again he was building an orchestra which, according to the announcement in the paper, "Will give a concert every week until Easter." At the conclusion of the last concert, the mayor of Lille placed a crown of laurels on St. Georges' brow and read a poem dedicated to him.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=366 In April and June 1791, the Parliament recruited (400,000)
volunteers Volunteering is an elective and freely chosen act of an individual or group giving their time and labor, often for community service. Many volunteers are specifically trained in the areas they work, such as medicine, education, or emergenc ...
from the entire French National Guard for the
French Revolutionary Army The French Revolutionary Army () was the French land force that fought the French Revolutionary Wars from 1792 to 1802. In the beginning, the French armies were characterised by their revolutionary fervour, their poor equipment and their great nu ...
. Leopold II (1747-1792), (sensible) brother of Marie Antoinette, became increasingly concerned although he still hoped to avoid war. With 50,000 Austrian troops massed on its borders, the first citizen's army in modern history was calling for volunteers. Saint-Georges was appointed captain and colonel in the following year.{{sfn, Descaves, 1891, pp=3–4{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=364-365, 368, 370, 374, 500-501 It was believed he died in a pistol fight in
Koblenz Koblenz ( , , ; Moselle Franconian language, Moselle Franconian: ''Kowelenz'') is a German city on the banks of the Rhine (Middle Rhine) and the Moselle, a multinational tributary. Koblenz was established as a Roman Empire, Roman military p ...
,{{sfn, La Feuille du jour, 1791{{page needed, date=November 2024 but on 7 September 1791 he published a letter announcing he wasn't dead. On 20 April 1792, compelled by the National Assembly,
Louis XVI Louis XVI (Louis-Auguste; ; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. The son of Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765), Louis, Dauphin of France (son and heir- ...
declared
war War is an armed conflict between the armed forces of states, or between governmental forces and armed groups that are organized under a certain command structure and have the capacity to sustain military operations, or between such organi ...
against
Archduchy of Austria The Archduchy of Austria (; ) was a major Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, principality of the Holy Roman Empire and the nucleus of the Habsburg monarchy. With its capital at Vienna, the archduchy was centered at the Empire's southeastern periph ...
. General Dillon, commander of Lille, was ordered to attack
Tournai Tournai ( , ; ; ; , sometimes Anglicisation (linguistics), anglicised in older sources as "Tournay") is a city and Municipalities in Belgium, municipality of Wallonia located in the Hainaut Province, Province of Hainaut, Belgium. It lies by ...
, reportedly only lightly defended. Instead, massive fire by the Austrian artillery turned an orderly retreat into a rout by the regular cavalry but not that of the volunteers of the
National Guard National guard is the name used by a wide variety of current and historical uniformed organizations in different countries. The original National Guard was formed during the French Revolution around a cadre of defectors from the French Guards. ...
.{{sfn, Schama, 1989, p=600 Captain St. Georges commanded the company of volunteers that held the line at
Baisieux Baisieux () is a commune in the Nord department, northern France. It is part of the Métropole Européenne de Lille. Population Heraldry See also *Communes of the Nord department The following is a list of the 647 communes of the Nor ...
near the Belgian border. Mid August Marquis Lafayette hoping to travel to the United States, was taken prisoner by the Austrians. On 7 September 1792
Julien Raimond Julien Raimond (1744–1801) was a Saint Dominican indigo planter in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, now the Republic of Haiti, who became a leader in its revolution and the formation of Haiti. Early activism He was born a free man of co ...
, leader of a delegation of free men of color from Saint-Domingue (Haiti), petitioned the National Assembly to authorize the formation of a military legion of volunteers. The next day, the Parliament established a light cavalry in Lille consisting of volunteers from the
French West Indies The French West Indies or French Antilles (, ; ) are the parts of France located in the Antilles islands of the Caribbean: * The two overseas departments of: ** Guadeloupe, including the islands of Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Les Saintes, Ma ...
and
Le Midi Southern France, also known as the south of France or colloquially in French as , is a geographical area consisting of the regions of France that border the Atlantic Ocean south of the Marais Poitevin,Louis Papy, ''Le midi atlantique'', Atlas e ...
. The name of it was "'' Légion franche de cavalerie des Américains et du Midi''"; after 7 December it was referred to as "''American Legion''" and "''Légion de Saint-George''", attached to the
Army of the North (France) The Army of the North or is a name given to several historical units of the French Army. The first was one of the French Revolutionary Armies that fought with distinction against the First Coalition from 1792 to 1795. Others existed during th ...
.{{Efn, Americans, meaning from
French Antilles The French West Indies or French Antilles (, ; ) are the parts of France located in the Antilles islands of the Caribbean: * The two Overseas department and region of France, overseas departments of: ** Guadeloupe, including the islands of Bass ...
, France's American colonies{{citation needed, date=November 2024 La légion de Saint-George, une histoire très noire
Banat described it as "probably the first all non-white military unit" (in Europe).{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=372-373, 379-380, 382-383 The legion comprised seven companies, of which only one was made up of colored men, while the remainder comprised European-whites.{{Cite web, title=1789-1815 Hussards de Saint-Georges, url=https://www.1789-1815.com/arfr4_huss_st-g.htm, access-date=2022-01-09, website=1789-1815.com{{sfn, Descaves, 1891, p={{page needed, date=November 2024Detaille, p. 93Jean-Baptiste Belley and French Republicanism
/ref> On 25 September the Austrian army started to bombard Lille.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=376 In February 1793, lacking not only infantry, but equipment and officers, the American Legion changed its name and became " 13e régiment de chasseurs à cheval". On 20 March 1793 the National Convention sent
Danton Georges Jacques Danton (; ; 26 October 1759 – 5 April 1794) was a leading figure of the French Revolution. A modest and unknown lawyer on the eve of the Revolution, Danton became a famous orator of the Cordeliers Club and was raised to gover ...
, the instigator of the
Revolutionary Tribunal The Revolutionary Tribunal (; unofficially Popular Tribunal) was a court instituted by the National Convention during the French Revolution for the trial of political offenders. In October 1793, it became one of the most powerful engines of ...
, and Delacroix to Leuven to investigate Dumouriez during War with the Dutch Republic and his generals.{{Efn,
Francisco de Miranda Sebastián Francisco de Miranda y Rodríguez de Espinoza (28 March 1750 – 14 July 1816), commonly known as Francisco de Miranda (), was a Venezuelan military leader and revolutionary who fought in the American Revolutionary War, the French R ...
the only general from South-America, operating in the
Austrian Netherlands The Austrian Netherlands was the territory of the Burgundian Circle of the Holy Roman Empire between 1714 and 1797. The period began with the acquisition by the Austrian Habsburg monarchy of the former Spanish Netherlands under the Treaty of Ras ...
was sent to Paris for investigation. De Miranda leading the "Armée de la Belgique" and
John Skey Eustace John Skey Eustace (10 August 1760 in Flushing, Queens, Flushing, Province of New York, British America – 25 August 1805 in Newburgh, New York) was an officer and a veteran of both the American and French Revolutionary Wars.The Papers of the Revo ...
, the only general from the US, blamed Dumouriez for the defeat.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=396 An investigation by
Fouquier-Tinville Antoine Quentin Fouquier de Tinville (, 10 June 17467 May 1795), also called Fouquier-Tinville and nicknamed posthumously the Provider of the Guillotine was a French lawyer and accusateur public of the Revolutionary Tribunal during the French Rev ...
followed on 16–17 May into the military leadership of Miranda and Miaczinsky. In July Miranda was imprisoned for 1.5 year. At the end of the month five commissioners (led by
Pierre de Ruel, marquis de Beurnonville Pierre de Ruel, marquis de Beurnonville (10 May 1752 – 23 April 1821) was a French general during the French Revolutionary Wars and later a marshal of France and Deputy Grand Master of Grand Orient de France.Dictionnaire de la Franc-maçonnerie ...
) were sent to question and arrest him.{{sfn, Thompson, 2017, p=215{{sfn, Robespierre, 1958,
399
} Dumouriez sensed a trap and invited them to his headquarters at
Saint-Amand-les-Eaux Saint-Amand-les-Eaux (; former ) is a commune in the Nord department, northern France. It lies on the river Scarpe, 12 km northwest of Valenciennes. In French, the town people are named ''Amandinois'' (m), ''Amandinoise'' (f). Saint ...
and had them arrested at
Orchies Orchies (; ) is a commune in the department of Nord in the Hauts-de-France region of French Flanders, northern France. Its inhabitants are called Orchésiens. Orchies is the biggest town of the Pévèle. It is especially known for its ''Mus ...
. They were escorted by Saint-Georges, who immediately drove back.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=392{{sfn, France Tribunal Révolutionnaire, 1793, pp=148, 151 On 2 April the city of Lille was successfully defended by Saint-Georges against Jozef Miaczinsky who was sent by Dumouriez to seize the city, to arrest the other commissioners and save the "treasure".{{sfn, Le Républicain français, 1793{{sfn, Wallon, 1880, pp=101-103, ref=Wallon1880{{sfn, Gazette nationale ou le Moniteur universel, 1793, p={{page needed, date=November 2024Mercure français, 1 juin 1793 His troops were forced to camp outside the city walls. Because of a
ceasefire A ceasefire (also known as a truce), also spelled cease-fire (the antonym of 'open fire'), is a stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions often due to mediation by a third party. Ceasefires may b ...
no troops were allowed to cross the border. Dumouriez' plans to reinstall the
French Constitution of 1791 The French Constitution of 1791 () was the first written constitution in France, created after the collapse of the absolute monarchy of the . One of the basic precepts of the French Revolution was adopting constitutionality and establishing po ...
, and restore the monarchy in Paris (with
Duke of Chartres Originally, the Duchy of Chartres (''duché de Chartres'') was the ''comté'' de Chartres, a County. The title of comte de Chartres thus became duc de Chartres. This duchy–peerage was given by Louis XIV of France to his nephew, Philippe II ...
who had to marry Marie-Thérèse, Duchess of Angoulême imprisoned in the
Temple, Paris The Square du Temple is a garden in Paris, France in the 3rd arrondissement, established in 1857. It is one of 24 city squares planned and created by Georges-Eugène Haussmann and Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand. The Square occupies the site ...
) fell apart.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=396 On 4 April the convention declared Dumouriez a traitor and outlaw and put a prize on his head.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=398 Dumouriez's defection on the next day changed the course of the events for the Brissotins.{{Efn, Dumouriez blamed the famous mulatto for thwarting his plans.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=461 Saint-Georges prohibited the arrest of the other commissioners and couriers in Lille; instead Miaczinsky was arrested, transported to Paris, tried, and executed.{{citation needed, date=December 2024 Robespierre was convinced Brissot and Dumouriez wanted to overthrow the
First French Republic In the history of France, the First Republic (), sometimes referred to in historiography as Revolutionary France, and officially the French Republic (), was founded on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted u ...
. On 6 April the
Committee of Public Safety The Committee of Public Safety () was a committee of the National Convention which formed the provisional government and war cabinet during the Reign of Terror, a violent phase of the French Revolution. Supplementing the Committee of General D ...
was installed. Philippe Égalité was then put under continuous surveillance. On 6 May Saint-Georges was invited by the
accusateur public The function of public accuser, defending society, was established during the French Revolution by the decrees of 1 December 1790, 16 September 1791, 15 December 1791 and 15 February 1792, and disappeared in 1799 when the Constitution of 22 Fri ...
to Paris to witness against Miaczinsky. On 4 and 10 May he was accused by
Stanislas-Marie Maillard Stanislas-Marie Maillard (11 December 1763 – 11 April 1794) was a captain of the Bastille Volunteers. As a national guardsman, he participated in the attack on the Bastille, being the first revolutionary to get into the fortress, and also accom ...
,{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=503 and Louis Héron. On 16 May his house was searched and bonds were found belonging to Philippe Égalité and Dumouriez.{{Cite journal, last=Nemeth, first=Luc, date=2005-03-01, title=Un état-civil chargé d'enjeux : Saint-George, 1745-1799, url=https://journals.openedition.org/ahrf/2130, journal=Annales historiques de la Révolution française, language=fr, issue=339, pages=79–97, doi=10.4000/ahrf.2130, issn=0003-4436, url-access=subscription{{Efn, On 17 May, several officers of the American Legion signed an " Address to the Convention, to all the Clubs and societies patriotic for the negroes held in slavery in the French colonies".{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=509? On 17 May the trial against general Miaczinsky started (headed by
Jacques-Bernard-Marie Montané Jacques-Bernard-Marie Montané (5 January 1751, Toulouse–after 1805) was president of the Revolutionary Tribunal from March to August in 1793, during the French Revolution. He was president at the trial of Charlotte Corday. He was seen as ...
); Captain Collin was interrogated. On 18 May Saint-Georges, dressed as a civilian, performed a
requiem A Requiem (Latin: ''rest'') or Requiem Mass, also known as Mass for the dead () or Mass of the dead (), is a Mass of the Catholic Church offered for the repose of the souls of the deceased, using a particular form of the Roman Missal. It is ...
by Gossec for the murdered general
Théobald Dillon Théobald Dillon (1745 – 29 April 1792) was a French Royal Army officer. He was a distant cousin of general Arthur Dillon (who also had a brother named Theobald). He entered Dillon's Regiment as a cadet in 1761, gradually rose to be a li ...
and the other victims in Lille.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=367 In the following weeks Saint-Georges was accused of misusing government funds, and the Legion disbanded.{{sfn, Reiss, 2012, pp=133–145 On 25 September 1793 Saint-Georges and ten of his officers were dismissed.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=399 On 29 September he was arrested without specific charges, according to Banat.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=402, 404-405, 426, 436, 511 (On 17 September, the
Law of Suspects :''Note: This decree should not be confused with the Law of General Security (), also known as the "Law of Suspects," adopted by Napoleon III in 1858 that allowed punishment for any prison action, and permitted the arrest and deportation, without ...
was passed, which authorized the imprisonment of vaguely defined "suspects".) It is supposed he was suspected of having been friendly with
Marie-Antoinette Marie Antoinette (; ; Maria Antonia Josefa Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last queen of France before the French Revolution and the establishment of the French First Republic. She was the wife of Louis XVI. Born Archd ...
,
Brissot Jacques Pierre Brissot (, 15 January 1754 – 31 October 1793), also known as Brissot de Warville, was a French journalist, abolitionist, and revolutionary leading the faction of Girondins (initially called Brissotins) at the National Conventio ...
, and
Philippe Égalité Philippe is a masculine given name, cognate to Philip, and sometimes also a surname. The name may refer to: * Philippe of Belgium (born 1960), King of the Belgians (2013–present) * Philippe (footballer) (born 2000), Brazilian footballer * Prince ...
, all executed in the following weeks. Saint-Georges was sent to Chateau de Chantilly which served as a prison for political opponents (the
Girondins The Girondins (, ), also called Girondists, were a political group during the French Revolution. From 1791 to 1793, the Girondins were active in the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention. Together with the Montagnards, they initiall ...
) and then to Hondainville at chateau Saint-Aignan, formerly owned by the Comte de Saint-Morys. Early December 1793 it seems, he was condemned for being involved in non-revolutionary activities such as music events, but not much is known about a trial; maybe there never was one.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=402-405 He was released after eleven months on 24 October 1794 and asked to be reinstated in the army on 3 April 1795.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=512, 514 One month later he was arrested again,{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=426, 518 when
White Terror White Terror may refer to: Events France * First White Terror (1794–1795), a movement against the Jacobins in the French Revolution * Second White Terror (1815), a movement against the French Revolution Post-Russian Empire * White Terror (Rus ...
was sweeping the country but released on 15 May. Five days later the
Sans-culottes The (; ) were the working class, common people of the social class in France, lower classes in late 18th-century history of France, France, a great many of whom became radical and militant partisans of the French Revolution in response to their ...
were defeated (in the
Revolt of 1 Prairial Year III The Revolt of 1 Prairial Year III (20 May 1795) was the final major popular uprising of the French Revolution. Sans-culottes from eastern Paris marched on the National Convention demanding "''du pain et la Constitution de l’An I''" — bread ...
); on 22 August 1795, the
Constitution of the Year III The Constitution of the Year III () was the constitution of the French First Republic that established the Directory. Adopted by the convention on 5 Fructidor Year III (22 August 1795) and approved by plebiscite on 6 September. Its preamble is ...
established a
bicameral legislature Bicameralism is a type of legislature that is divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses, known as a bicameral legislature. Bicameralism is distinguished from unicameralism, in which all members deliberate and vote as a single ...
, intended to slow down the legislative process. On 19 October all the officers in the army, also the ones who were dismissed, had to clarify for the
Committee of Public Safety The Committee of Public Safety () was a committee of the National Convention which formed the provisional government and war cabinet during the Reign of Terror, a violent phase of the French Revolution. Supplementing the Committee of General D ...
where they were on the days around
13 Vendémiaire 13 Vendémiaire, Year 4 in the French Republican Calendar (5 October 1795 in the Gregorian calendar), was a battle between the French Revolutionary troops and Royalist forces in the streets of Paris. This battle was part of the establishing ...
.{{sfn, Gazette nationale ou le Moniteur universel, 1795, p=2 On 24 October Saint-Georges was dismissed.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=426, 518 On Sunday 25 October the
National Convention The National Convention () was the constituent assembly of the Kingdom of France for one day and the French First Republic for its first three years during the French Revolution, following the two-year National Constituent Assembly and the ...
declared itself dissolved and voted for a general amnesty for "deeds exclusively connected with the Revolution".{{sfn, Soboul, 1974, p=473 A slimmed down government (the
Directoire The Directory (also called Directorate; ) was the system of government established by the French Constitution of 1795. It takes its name from the committee of 5 men vested with executive power. The Directory governed the French First Republ ...
) started working and appointed Napoleon as General in Chief of the
Interior Interior may refer to: Arts and media * ''Interior'' (Degas) (also known as ''The Rape''), painting by Edgar Degas * ''Interior'' (play), 1895 play by Belgian playwright Maurice Maeterlinck * ''The Interior'' (novel), by Lisa See * Interior de ...
and 2 March 1796 of the Army of Italy. On 3 May 1797, Saint-Georges tried to join and signed his petition "George".{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=425, 517 He wrote: {{Blockquote, "I continue to show loyalty to the revolution. Since the beginning of the war, I have been serving with relentless enthusiasm, but the persecution I suffered has not diminished. I have no other resources, only to restore my original position."{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=451 However, his application to Rewbell, a member of the
French Directory The Directory (also called Directorate; ) was the system of government established by the Constitution of the Year III, French Constitution of 1795. It takes its name from the committee of 5 men vested with executive power. The Directory gov ...
, failed again. One of the decisions of Napoleon as First Consul for life was the re-establishment of slavery (
Law of 20 May 1802 The Law of 20 May 1802 was a decree passed by First Consul Napoleon of the French First Republic on 20 May 1802 that reinstated slavery. It decreed the reinstatement and continuation of slavery in French colonies reversing the Law of 4 Februar ...
) revoking the
Law of 4 February 1794 The Law of 4 February 1794 was a decree of the French First Republic's National Convention which abolished Slavery in France, slavery in the French colonial empire. Background During the early modern period, France began French colonization of ...
which had abolished
slavery Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
in all the
French colonies From the 16th to the 17th centuries, the First French colonial empire existed mainly in the Americas and Asia. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the second French colonial empire existed mainly in Africa and Asia. France had about 80 colonie ...
.


Possible Saint-Domingue visit

Some biographers claim that St. Georges would have stayed in Saint-Domingue where he would have met with
Toussaint Louverture François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture (, ) also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture or Toussaint Bréda (20 May 1743 – 7 April 1803), was a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. During his life, Louvertu ...
. However, the stay of Saint-Georges in Saint-Domingue, after his imprisonment, is uncertain.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=446-447 There may be confusion with another
legend A legend is a genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions, believed or perceived to have taken place in human history. Narratives in this genre may demonstrate human values, and possess certain qualities that give the ...
, his stay on the island of
Martinique Martinique ( ; or ; Kalinago language, Kalinago: or ) is an island in the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies, in the eastern Caribbean Sea. It was previously known as Iguanacaera which translates to iguana island in Carib language, Kariʼn ...
in December 1789. A newspaper mentioned that on request of Martinique Saint-Georges arrived there with 15,000 rifles in early December 1789. In fact he was with the Duke of Orléans in London and afterward Lille. It stands to reason that
Julien Raimond Julien Raimond (1744–1801) was a Saint Dominican indigo planter in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, now the Republic of Haiti, who became a leader in its revolution and the formation of Haiti. Early activism He was born a free man of co ...
would want to take St. Georges, an experienced officer, with him to Saint-Domingue, then in a civil war. While we lack concrete evidence that St. Georges was aboard the convoy of the commission, the fact that we find Captain Colin, and Lamotte (Lamothe) on the payroll of a ship of the convoy to Saint-Domingue, confirms Louise Fusil's account.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=519 So does
Lionel de La Laurencie Lionel de La Laurencie (24 July 1861 – 21 November 1933) was a French musicologist and first president of the 1917 founded ''Société française de musicologie'' (French association of musicologists) from 1917 to 1920 and from 1931 to 1933. ...
's statement: "The expedition to Saint-Domingue was Saint-Georges' last voyage," adding that "Disenchantment and melancholy resulting from his experiences during that voyage must have weighed heavily on his aging shoulders"{{sfn, La Laurencie, 1922, p=484 Anyhow, the memoirs of Louise Fusil are full of inaccuracies, errors, or counter-truths. It seems unlikely that St. Georges had been a part of the official delegation of commissioners civilians sent to Saint-Domingue with their head Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, the friend of Jacques Pierre Brissot, the founder of the Society of the Friends of the Blacks. Historians have found to this day no trace of St. Georges in the press of the time, or in the archives of the manifests of ships bound for French ports for Saint-Domingue or making trips back in France. It is believed that after his ouster of the armies of the Revolution, Saint-Georges would not have left Europe. On 16 December 1795, his mother died, and on 29 March 1796, he signed as the executor of her will.{{sfn, Bardin, 2015b, p=3 It is likely he inherited some money and property. On 19 April 1796 he and Lamothe, the horn player, gave a concert, for the impoverished
Carl Stamitz Carl Philipp Stamitz (; baptized 8 May 17459 November 1801) was a German composer of partial Czech ancestry. He was the most prominent representative of the second generation of the Mannheim School. He was the eldest son of Johann Stamitz, a vio ...
. St. Georges was again building a symphony orchestra. Like his last ensemble, ''Le Cercle de l'Harmonie'' was also part of a Masonic lodge performing in what was formerly the Palais Royal. The founders of the new ''Loge'', a group of ''nouveau riche'' gentlemen bent on re-creating the elegance of the old ''Loge Olympique'', were delighted to find St. Georges back in Paris. On 11 and 28 April 1797 he gave concerts in the Palais-Royal, Palais-Égalité.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=451-452{{sfn, La Quotidienne ou Feuille du jour, 1797, p={{page needed, date=November 2024 According to ''Mercure de France, Le Mercure Français'', "The concerts ... under the direction of the famous Saint Georges, left nothing to be desired as to the choice of pieces or the superiority of their execution". More concerts took place in July and August 1798.{{sfn, Le Courrier des spectacles, 1798a, p=6{{sfn, Le Courrier des spectacles, 1798b, p=5


Death

According to a number of his biographers, at the end of his life, St. Georges lived in abject poverty, but the ''Cercle'' did not sound like the lower depths. Rejected by the army, St. Georges appealed again saying "I have no other resources" but was still rejected. Instead, at the age of 51, he found solace in his music. Sounding like any veteran performer proud of his longevity,{{POV statement, date=November 2024 he said: "Towards the end of my life, I was particularly devoted to my violin," adding: "never before did I play it so well!"{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=451 Two of his contemporary obituaries reveal the course of his illness and death. : La Boëssière fils: "Saint-Georges felt the onset of a disease of the bladder and, given his usual negligence, paid it little attention; he even kept secret an ulcer, source of his illness; gangrene set in.{{sfn, La Boëssière, 1818, p=xxii : : J.S.A. Cuvelier in his ''Necrology'': "For some time he had been tormented by a violent fever ... his vigorous nature had repeatedly fought off this cruel illness; [but] after a month of suffering, the end came on 21 Prairial [June 9] at five o'clock in the evening. Sometime before the end, St. Georges stayed with a friend [Captain Duhamel] in the rue Boucherat. His death was marked by the calm of the wise and the dignity of the strong."{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=453 Captain Nicholas Duhamel, an officer in American Legion (French Army), Légion St.-Georges and aide-de-camp of General Miaczinsky, was his friend until his death.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=373, 393 Concerned about his old colonel's condition, he stopped by Chevalier's small flat on rue de Chartres-Saint-Honoré and, having found him dying and alone, took him to his apartment where he stayed and was cared for until his death. Saint-Georges died aged 53 in June 1799. His death certificate was lost in Paris Commune, 1871 when the city archives were destroyed; what remains is a report by the men who removed his body on the next day.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=520 This year died, twenty-four days apart, two extraordinary but very different men, Beaumarchais and Saint-Georges; both Masters at sparring; the one who could be touched by a foil was not the one who was more enviable for his virtues. {{spaces, 5— Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice (1799)


Home

From 1757, Saint-Georges lived at 49, :fr:rue Saint André des Arts, Rue Saint André des Arts with his parents. In 1774 he lived at :fr:Rue Guénégaud, Rue Guénégaud (also 6th arrondissement of Paris) with his mother. In 1777 he lived at Rue des Fontaines-du-Temple, in 1778 at Rue Saint Pierre, both in Le Marais; in 1779 he moved to 5, Chaussee d'Antin.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=195 After 1785 he lived in the Palais Royal.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=274 In September 1789 he stayed at Grenier's in
Jermyn Street Jermyn Street is a One-way traffic, one-way street in the St James's area of the City of Westminster in London, England. It is to the south of, parallel, and adjacent to Piccadilly. Jermyn Street is known as a street for gentlemen's-clothing r ...
(Westminster) patronized by French refugees. In 1791 he lived at 550, :fr:Rue Léon-Gambetta (Lille), Rue Notre-Dame, Lille.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=364 On 17 May 1793 he appeared as a witness at the Revolutionary Tribunal, Tribunal Révolutionnaire in a case against the Polish general Jozef Miaczinsky and gave his address at :fr:Rue des Filles-Saint-Thomas, Rue des Filles-Saint-Thomas.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=392 In March 1796 he lived at rue Jean Fleury (near Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois).{{sfn, Bardin, 2015b, p= In 1799, when he was sick he lived :fr:Rue de Chartres-Saint-Honoré, Rue de Chartres-Saint-Honoré across the
Palais-Royal The Palais-Royal () is a former French royal palace located on Rue Saint-Honoré in the 1st arrondissement of Paris. The screened entrance court faces the Place du Palais-Royal, opposite the Louvre Palace, Louvre. Originally called the Palais-Ca ...
but this street disappeared. On 9 June 1799, Saint-Georges died at his friend's Duhemal apartment :fr:Rue de Turenne (Paris), Rue de Boucherat 13, (Le Marais).{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=453 He was buried at Cimetière Sainte-Marguerite.


Works

Saint-Georges, influenced by the prevailing Empfindsamkeit (music), sentimental style wrote twelve violin concertos, two symphonies, and eight ''Sinfonia concertante, symphony-concertantes'', a new, intrinsically Parisian genre of which he was one of the chief exponents. He wrote his instrumental works over a short span of time, and they were published between 1771 and 1779. He also wrote six ''opéras comiques'' and a number of songs in manuscript. Saint-Georges wrote two more sets of six string quartets, three forte-piano and violin sonatas, a sonata for harp and flute, six violin duets,{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=469-478 a Rondo, rondeau for two violins, an Tempo#Basic tempo markings, adagio in F-minor (for piano), a harpsichord quartet. Some of Saint-Georges' music has been lost, including a children's opera, "''Aline et Dupré, ou le marchand de marrons,''" of which only the overture survives. The music for three other known compositions is lost: a cello sonata, performed in Lille in 1792, a concerto for clarinet, and one for bassoon. Some French journalists such as {{Interlanguage link, Alain Guédé, fr have asserted without evidence that Saint-Georges' scores were purposefully burned because of his skin color, or even that Napoleon banned his music from being performed. Arguing against this, Banat observes that Saint-Georges' legacy was well-remembered in elite circles, especially his skill in fencing.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, p=457


Operas

* ''Ernestine'', opéra comique in 3 acts,
libretto A libretto (From the Italian word , ) is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or Musical theatre, musical. The term ''libretto'' is also sometimes used to refer to th ...
by
Choderlos de Laclos Pierre Ambroise François Choderlos de Laclos (; 18 October 1741 – 5 September 1803) was a French novelist, official, Freemason and army general, best known for writing the epistolary novel ''Les Liaisons dangereuses'' (''Dangerous Liaisons'') ...
revised by Desfontaines-Lavallée, première in Paris, Comédie Italienne, 19 July 1777, lost. Note: a few numbers survive. * ''La Partie de chasse'', opéra comique in 3 acts, libretto by Desfontaines, public premiere in Paris, Comédie Italienne, 12 October 1778, lost. Note: a few numbers survive. * ''L'Amant anonyme (The Anonymous Lover)'', comédie mélée d'ariettes et de ballets, in 2 acts, after a play by Mme. de Genlis, première in Paris, Théâtre de Mme. de Montesson, 8 March 1780, complete manuscript in Paris Bibliothèque Nationale, section musique, côte 4076. In 2016, the opera was revived by American Conductor Marlon Daniel, a leading authority on the life and music of Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de Saint-Georges, and the Artistic and Music Director of the Festival International de Musique Saint-Georges. The performance, which marked the American premiere of the complete work, took place at the Charleston Gaillard Center in South Carolina. This marked the first time the opera had been performed in its entirety, 236 years after it was composed, featuring French soprano Magali Léger in the leading role of Léontine and Cuban-American tenor Everette Shuttle as Valcour, the titular “Anonymous Lover.” The edition was prepared from manuscripts by ArtistWorld Publishing. The first critical edition of this, was prepared by Opera Ritrovata for streaming performance by Los Angeles Opera and the Colburn School in November 2020. In June 2022 this work was performed by the Haymarket Opera Company in Chicago. The opera was subsequently recorded by Cedille Records and features the soprano Nicole Cabell.{{cite web , last1=Johnson , first1=Lawrence B. , title=Haymarket Opera lifts the veil from Bologne's 'L'Amant anonyme' to reveal a comedic gem , url=https://chicagoontheaisle.com/2022/06/24/haymarket-opera-lifts-the-veil-from-bolognes-lamant-anonyme-to-reveal-a-comedic-gem/ , website=Chicago On the Aisle , access-date=15 November 2024 , date=24 June 2022 * ''La Fille garçon'', opéra comique mélée d'ariettes in 2 acts, libretto by Desmaillot, premiere in Paris, Comédie Italienne, 18 August 1787, lost. * ''Aline et Dupré, ou le marchand de marrons'', children's opera, premiere in le Théâtre du comte de Beaujolais, 1788. lost. * ''Guillaume tout coeur ou les amis du village,'' opéra comique in one act, libretto by Monnet, première in Lille, 8 September 1790, lost.


Symphonies

*''Deux Symphonies à plusieurs instruments'', Op. XI No. 1 in G and No. 2 in D.{{Efn, No 1 is listed as 'spurious' by ''Grove Music Online''.{{sfn, Banat, 2001 No 2 is identical with the overture to Bologne's ''opéra comique'', ''L'Amant anonyme''. The orchestration consists of strings, two oboes and two horns.


Concertante


Violin concertos

Saint-Georges composed 14 violin concertos. Before copyrights, several publishers issued his concertos with both Opus numbers and numbering them according to the order in which they were composed. The thematic incipits on the right, should clear up the resulting confusion. * Op. II No. 1 in G and No. 2 in D, published by Bailleux, 1773 * Op. III No. 1 in D and No. 2 in C, Bailleux, 1774 * Op. IV No. 1 in D and No. 2 in D, Bailleux, 1774 (No. 1 also published as "Op. post." while No. 2 is also known simply as "op. 4") * Op. V No.1 in C and No. 2 in A, Bailleux, 1775 * Op. VII No. 1 in A and No. 2 in B-flat, Bailleux, 1777 * Op. VIII No. 1 in D and No. 2 in G, Bailleux n/d (No. 2 issued by Sieber, LeDuc and Henry as No. 9. No. 1 is also known simply as "op. 8") * Op. XII No. 1 in E-flat and No. 2 in G, Bailleux 1777 (both issued by Sieber as No. 10 and No. 11)


Symphonies concertantes

* Op. VI No. 1 in C and No. 2 in B-flat, Bailleux, 1775 * Op. IX No. 1 in C and No. 2 in A, LeDuc, 1777 * Op. X for two violins and viola, No. 1 in F and No. 2 in A, La Chevardière, 1778 * Op. XIII No. 1 in E-flat and No. 2 in G, Sieber, 1778 Unlike the concertos, their publishers issued the symphonie-concertantes following Bailleux's original opus numbers, as shown by the incipits on the right.


Chamber music


Sonatas

*''Trois Sonates'' for keyboard with violin: B-flat, A, and G minor, Op. 1a, composed c. 1770, published in 1781 by LeDuc. *Sonata for harp with flute obligato, n.d.: E-flat, original MS in Bibliothèque Nationale, côte: Vm7/6118 *''Sonate de clavecin avec violin obligé'' G major, arrangement of Saint-Georges's violin concerto Op. II No. 1 in G, in the collection ''Choix de musique du duc regnant des Deux-Ponts'' *Six Sonatas for violin accompanied by a second violin: B-flat, E-flat, A, G, B-flat, A: Op. posth. Pleyel, 1800. * Cello Sonata, lost, mentioned by a review in the ''Gazette du departement du Nord'' on 10 April 1792. *''Sonata and Rondo in C Major'', edited by Hyunjung Rachel Chung, notes by Hyunjung Rachel Chung, 2024. Licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Available at IMSLP.


String quartet

*''Six quatuors à cordes, pour 2 vls, alto & basse, dédiés au prince de Robecq'', in C, E-flat, G minor, C minor, G minor, & D. Op. 1; probably composed in 1770 or 1771, published by Sieber in 1773. *''Six quartetto concertans "Au gout du jour"'', no opus number. In B-flat, G minor, C, F, G, and B-flat, published by Durieu in 1779. *''Six Quatuor concertant, Quatuors concertans, oeuvre XIV'', in D, B-flat, F minor, G, E-flat, & G minor, published by Boyer, 1785.


Vocal music

''Recueil d'airs et duos avec orchestre:'' stamped Conservatoire de musique #4077, now in the music collection of the Bibliothèque Nationale, contains: # Allegro: Loin du soleil, in E-flat. # Andante: N'êtes vous plus la tendre amie? in F. # Ariette: Satisfait du plaisir d'aimer; in A. # Ariette-Andante: (Clemengis) La seule Ernestine qui m'enflamme; in E-flat # Duo: (Isabelle & Dorval) C'est donc ainsi qu'on me soupconne; in F. # Scena-Recitavo: Ernestine, que vas tu faire .. as tu bien consulte ton Coeur? in E-flat. # Aria: O Clemengis, lis dans mon Ame; in C minor. # Air: Image cherie, Escrits si touchants; in B-flat. # Air: Que me fait a moi la richesse ... sans songer a Nicette; in F minor. # Duo: Au prés de vous mon Coeur soupire Note: The names of the characters, Ernestine and Clemengis, in numbers 4, 6, 7 and 8 of the above pieces indicate they came from the opera ''Ernestine''; number 5 is probably from ''La Partie de chasse.'' The orchestra for all the above consists of strings, two oboes and two horns. ''Additional songs'' * Air: "Il n'est point, disoit mon père", from the opera ''Ernestine'', in ''Journal de Paris'', 1777. * Two ''Airs de la Chasse'', "Mathurin dessus l'herbette" and "Soir et matin sous la fougère" "de M. de Saint-Georges" in ''Journal de La Harpe'', of 1779, the first air, no. 9, the second one, no. 10, dated 1781, marked: "With accompagnement by M. Hartman", clearly only the voice part may be considered to be by Saint-Georges. The same is true of an air "de M. de St.-George", "L'Autre jour sous l'ombrage", also in the ''Journal de La Harpe'' (8e Année, No. 7), marked: "avec accompagnement par M. Delaplanque". * Two Italian canzonettas: "Sul margine d'un rio" and "Mamma mia" (different than the spurious "Six Italian Canzonettas") copied by an unknown hand (including the signature) but authenticated by a paraphe (initials) in Saint-Georges' hand. They are in BnF, ms 17411.


Dubious works

{{unreferenced section, date=June 2024 {{POV section, date=November 2024 The opera, ''Le Droit du seigneur'' taken for a work by Saint-Georges is in fact by Jean-Paul-Égide Martini, J-P-E. Martini: one aria contributed by Saint-Georges, mentioned in 1784 by ''Mercure de France'', is lost. A Symphony in D by "Signor di Giorgio" in the British Library, arranged for pianoforte, as revealed by Prof. Dominique-René de Lerma is by the Earl of Kelly, using a ''nom de plume''. A quartet for harp and strings, ed. by Sieber, 1777, attributed to Saint-Georges, is mentioned in an advertisement in ''Mercure de France'' of September 1778 as: "arranged and dedicated to M. de Saint-Georges" by Delaplanque. This is obviously by the latter. A sonata in the ''Recueil'' ''Choix de musique'' in the Bibliothèque Nationale, is a transcription for forte-piano and violin of Saint-Georges' violin concerto in G major, Op. II No. 1. This is the only piece by Saint-Georges in the entire collection erroneously attributed to him. ''Recueil d'Airs avec accompagnement de forte piano par M. de St. Georges pour Mme. La Comtesse de Vauban'', sometimes presented as a collection of vocal pieces by Saint-Georges, contains too many numbers obviously composed by others. For example, "Richard Coeur de lion" is by André Grétry, Grétry; "Iphigenie en Tauride" is by Christoph Willibald Gluck, Gluck; and an aria from ''Tarare'' is by Antonio Salieri, Salieri. Even if Saint-Georges had arranged their orchestral accompaniments for forte-piano, it would be wrong to consider them as his compositions. As for the rest, though some might be by Saint-Georges, since this may only be resolved by a subjective stylistic evaluation, it would be incorrect to accept them all as his work. ''Six Italian Canzonettas'' by a Signor di Giorgio, for voice, keyboard or harp, and ''The Mona Melodies'', a collection of ancient airs from the Isle of Man, in the British Library, are not by Saint-Georges. ''Recueil de pieces pour forte piano et violon pour Mme. la comtesse de Vauban'' erroneously subtitled "Trios" (they are solos and duos), a collection of individual movements, some for piano alone, deserves the same doubts as the ''Recueil d'Airs pour Mme. Vauban''. Apart from drafts for two of Saint-Georges's {{lang, fr, oeuvres de clavecin, too many of these pieces seem incompatible with the composer's style. "Les Caquets" (The Gossips) a violin piece enthusiastically mentioned by some authors as typical of Saint-Georges's style, was composed in 1936 by the violinist Henri Casadesus. He also forged a spurious George Frideric Handel, Handel viola concerto and the charming but equally spurious "Adelaide" concerto supposedly by the ten-year-old
Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (27 January 1756 – 5 December 1791) was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period (music), Classical period. Despite his short life, his rapid pace of composition and proficiency from an early age ...
, which Casadesus' brother, Marius Casadesus later admitted having composed (often incorrectly attributed to Henri as well).


Discography

{{Incomplete list, date=January 2019 The following is a list of all known commercial recordings.{{sfn, Banat, 2006, pp=479-483{{year missing, date=November 2024


Symphonies concertantes

* Symphonie Concertante, Op. IX No. 1 in C: Miroslav Vilimec and Jiri Zilak, violins, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor, Avenira, 1996–98. * Symphonie Concertante, Op. IX No. 2 in A: Miroslav Vilimec and Jiri Zilak, violins, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor, Avenira, 1996–98. * Symphonie Concertante, Op. X No. 1 in F: Miroslav Vilimec and Jiri Zilak, violins, Jan Motlik, viola, Frantisek Preisler, conductor. Avenira, 1996–98. * Symphonie Concertante, Op. X No. 2 in A: Miroslav Vilimec and Jiri Zilak, violins, Jan Motlik, viola, Frantisek Preisler, conductor. Avenira, 1996–98. * Symphonie Concertante, Op. XII (sic) in E-flat: Miroslav Vilimec and Jiri Zilak, violins, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor. Avenira, 1996–98. * Symphonie Concertante, Op. XIII in G: ** Miriam Fried and Jaime Laredo, violins, London Symphony Orchestra, Paul Freeman conductor, Columbia Records, 1970. ** Vilimec and Ailak, violins, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Preisler conductor, Avenira 1996–98. ** Christopher Guiot and Laurent Philippe, violins, with ''Les Archets de Paris''. ARCH, 2000. ** Micheline Blanchard and Germaine Raymond, violins, ''Ensemble Instrumental Jean-Marie Leclair'', Jean-François Paillard, conductor, Erato. ** Huguette Fernandez and Ginette Carles, violins, ''Orchestre de Chambre Jean-François Paillard'', Paillard, conductor, Musical Heritage Society. ** Malcolm Lathem and Martin Jones, violins, Concertante of St. James, London, Nicholas Jackson, conductor, RCA Victor, LBS-4945.


Symphonies

Symphony Op. XI No. 1 in G: * Orchestre de chambre de Versailles, Fernard Wahl, conductor, Arion (record label), Arion, 1981. * Tafelmusik orchestra, Jeanne Lamon violinist-conductor, Assai M, 2004. * Le Parlement de musique, Martin Gester conductor, Assai M, 2004. * Ensemble Instrumental Jean-Marie Leclair, Jean-François Paillard, conductor, Erato n.d., Contemporains Français de Mozart. * London Symphony Orchestra, Paul Freeman, conductor, Columbia Records, 1974. * ''L'Amant anonyme'', overture in three movements: *: Tafelmusik Baroque Orchestra, Jeanne Lamon, Conductor, Assai M, 2004 * ''L'Amant anonyme'', contredanse: *: Tafelmusik Baroque Orchestra, Jeanne Lamon, Conductor, Assai M, 2004 * ''L'Amant anonyme'', Ballet No. 1 and No. 6: *: Tafelmusik Baroque Orchestra, Jeanne Lamon, Conductor, Assai M, 2004 Symphony Op. XI No. 2 in D: * L'Ensemble Instrumental Jean-Marie Leclair, Jean-François Paillard, conductor. Erato, n.d., Contemporains Français de Mozart. * Orchestre de chambre de Versailles, Bernard Wahl, conductor, Arion, 1981. * Les Archets de Paris, Christopher Guiot conductor, Archets, 2000. * Tafelmusik orchestra, Jeanne Lamon, violinist-conductor, Assai M, 2004. * Le Parlement de musique, Martin Gester, conductor, Assai M, 2004.


Violin concertos

*Concerto Op. II, No. 1 in G: ** Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler conductor, Avenira, 2000. *Concerto Op. II, No. 2 in D: ** Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor, Avenira, 2000. ** Stéphanie-Marie Degrand, Le Parlement de musique, Gester, conductor, Assai, 2004. ** Yura Lee, Bayerische Kammerphilharmonie, Reinhard Goebel Conductor, OEHMS Classics, 2007 *Concerto Op. III, No. 1 in D: ** Jean-Jacques Kantorow, Orchestre de chambre Bernard Thomas, Arion, 1974. ** Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor, Avenira, 2000. ** Linda Melsted, Tafelmusik Orchestra, Jeanne Lamon, violinist-conductor, CBC Records, 2003. ** Qian Zhou, Toronto Camerata, Kevin Mallon, conductor, Naxos, 2004. *Concerto Op. III, No. 2 in C: ** Tamás Major, Orchestra della Svizzera Italiana, Forlane, 1999. ** Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor, Avenira, 2000. *Concerto Op. IV, No. 1 in D: ** Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor, Avenira 2000. ** Qian Zhou, Camerata Toronto, Kevin Mallon, conductor, Naxos, 2004. (The recording of this concerto was mistakenly reissued by Artaria as ''Op. posthumus'', see incipit of concerto Op. IV, No. 1 in D, in "Works".) *Concerto Op. IV, No. 2 in D: ** Hana Kotková, Orchestra della Svizzera Italiiana, Forlane, 1999. *Concerto Op. V, No. 1 in C: ** Jean-Jacques Kantorow, ''Orchestre de chambre Bernard Thomas'', Arion, 1974 ** Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor, Avenira, 2000. ** Christoph Guiot, Les Archets de Paris, ARCH, 2000 ** Takako Nishizaki, Köln Kammerorchester, Helmut Müller-Brühl, conductor, Naxos, 2001. *Concerto Op. V No. 2 in A: ** Jean-Jacques Kantorow, Orchestre de chambre Bernard Thomas, Arion, 1974 ** Rachel Barton, Encore Chamber Orchestra, Daniel Hegge, conductor, Cedille, 1997. ** Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor, Avenira, 2000. ** Takako Nishizaki, Köln Kammerorchester, Helmut Müller-Brühl, conductor, Naxos, 2001. ** Anne-Sophie Mutter, Mutter's Virtuosi, Anne-Sophie Mutter, conductor, Deutsche Grammophon, 2023. *Concerto Op. VII No. 1 in A: Anthony Flint, Orchestra della Svizzera Italiana, Forlane, 1999. *Concerto Op. VII No. 2 in B-flat: ** Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor, Avenira, 2000. ** Hans Liviabella, Orchestra della Svizzera Italiana, Alain Lombard, conductor, Forlane, 1999. *Concerto Op. VII, No. 1, actually Op. XII, No. 1: in D: Anne–Claude Villars, L'Orchestre de chambre de Versailles, Bernard Wahl, conductor, Arion, 1981. *concerto Op. VII, No. 2, actually Op. XII, No. 2 in G: Anne–Claude Villars, L'Orchestre de chambre de Versailles, Bernard Wahl, conductor, Arion, 1981. *Concerto Op. VIII, No. 1 in D: ** Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor, Avenira, 2000. *Concerto Op. VIII, No. 9, actually Op. VIII, No. 2 in G: ** Jean-Jacques Kantorow, Orchestre de chambre Bernard Thomas, Arion, 1976, Koch, 1996. ** Takako Nishizaki, Köln Kammerorchester, Helmut Müller-Brühl, conductor, Naxos, 2001. ** Stéphanie-Marie Degand, Le Parlement de musique, Martin Gester, conductor, Assai M, 2004. ** Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor. Avenira, 2000. *Concerto Op. VIII, No. 10, actually Op. XII, No. 1 in D: Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor. Avenira, 2000. *Concerto Op. VIII, No. 11, actually Op. XII, No. 2 in G: ** Miroslav Vilimec, Pilsen Radio Orchestra, Frantisek Preisler, conductor. Avenira, 2000. ** Qian Zhou, Toronto Camerata, Kevin Mallon, conductor. Naxos 2004. (Listed as Concerto No. 10 in G in the recent Artaria Edition) The Largo of this recording is identical with that of Op. V, No. 2 in A.


Chamber music

:String Quartets: Six quartets Op. 1 (1771). * Juilliard Quartet, Columbia Records, 1974. * Antarés, B-flat only Integral, 2003. * Coleridge, AFKA, 1998. * Jean-Noël Molard, Arion 1995. Six Quatuors Concertans, "Au gout du jour", no opus number (1779). * Coleridge Quartet, AFKA, 2003. * Antarés, Integral 2003. Six Quartets Op. 14 (1785). * Quatuor Apollon, Avenira, 2005. * Joachim Quartet, Koch Schwann 1996. * Quatuor Les Adieux, Auvidis Valois, 1996. * Quatuor Atlantis, Assai, M 2004. * Quatuor Apollon, Avenira, 2005 Three keyboard and violin sonatas (Op. 1a): * J. J. Kantorow, violin, Brigitte Haudebourg, Clavecin, Arion 1979. * Stéphanie-Marie Degand, Violin, Alice Zylberach, piano, Assai M, 2004.


Miscellaneous

*Adagio in F minor, edited by de Lerma, performance notes by Natalie Hinderas, Orion, 1977. *Air d'Ernestine: Faye Robinson, soprano, London Symphony Orchestra, Paul Freeman conductor, Columbia Records, 1970. ** Overture and two Airs of Leontine from ''L'Amant anonyme'': ''Enfin, une foule importune: Du tendre amour'': Odile Rhino, soprano, Les Archets de Paris, Christophe Guiot conductor, Archives Records, 2000. ** Excerpts from Ballets No. 1 & 2, and Contredance from ''L'Amant anonyme'', Tafelmusik Orchestra, Jeanne Lamon, violinist-conductor, CBC Records, 2003.


In popular culture

Saint-Georges's D Major Opus 3 Number 1 II Adagio is interpolated in “Daughter” from Beyoncé's ''Cowboy Carter'' (2024). Saint-Georges's life and career are the subject of the 2022 romanticized biographical film ''Chevalier (2022 film), Chevalier'', with Kelvin Harrison Jr. portraying the composer.{{cite web , title=Searchlight Movies 2023 , url=https://www.searchlightpictures.com/news/chevalier-official-trailer-news/ , publisher=Searchlight , access-date=26 November 2022 , archive-date=28 June 2023 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628103503/https://www.searchlightpictures.com/news/chevalier-official-trailer-news/


Footnotes

{{notelist


References

{{reflist, 1=30em, refs= {{cite web , last1=Waleik , first1=Gary , title=Le Chevalier De Saint-Georges: Fencer, Composer, Revolutionary , url=https://www.wbur.org/onlyagame/2019/03/15/chevalier-saint-georges-france-fencing , publisher=WBUR , access-date=20 February 2022 , date=15 March 2019 {{Cite web, url=https://atlantablackstar.com/2014/04/13/joseph-bologne-chevalier-de-saint-georges-france/, title=Joseph Bologne: The Chevalier de Saint-Georges of France, last=Rashidi, first=Runoko, date=13 April 2014, website=Atlanta Black Star, access-date=26 September 2019 {{Cite web, url=https://chevalierdesaintgeorges.homestead.com/Page1.html, title=Le Chevalier de Saint-George, Afro-French Composer, Violinist & Conductor, website=chevalierdesaintgeorges.homestead.com, access-date=26 September 2019 {{cite web , title=About Le Chevalier de Saint-Georges , url=https://www.colourofmusic.org/about-le-chevalier-de-saint-georges/ , website=Colour of Music , access-date=26 September 2019 , archive-date=26 September 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926202115/https://www.colourofmusic.org/about-le-chevalier-de-saint-georges/ , url-status=dead {{sfn, Cornaz, 2001{{sfn, Anderson, Payne, Heartz, Freedman, 2001{{Cite web, last=Salazar, first=David, date=28 October 2020, title=Restoring a Classic - How Opera Ritrovata Created a Critical Edition for Joseph Bologne's 'L'Amant anonyme', url=https://operawire.com/restoring-a-classic-how-opera-ritrovata-created-a-critical-edition-for-joseph-bolognes-lamant-anonyme/, access-date=8 November 2020, website=Opera Wire


Works cited

* {{cite book , title=Almanach musical, pour l'année mil-sept-cent-quatre-vingt-un. , date=1781 , lccn=2014572208 , url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/muspre1800.101428/?sp=198 , access-date=21 October 2019 , language=fr , ref={{harvid, Almanach, 1781 * {{Citation, date=March 10, 1793, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nrgst0wnIAkC, title=Bulletin Du Tribunal Criminel Révolutionnaire, Etabli au Palais, à Paris, par la Loi du 10 Mars 1793, pour juger sans appel les Conspirateurs [1. Partie], publisher=Clement, language=fr, issn=2452-6517, ref={{harvid, France Tribunal Révolutionnaire, 1793 * {{Citation, title=Gazette nationale ou le Moniteur universel, date=1793-05-22, url=https://www.retronews.fr/journal/gazette-nationale-ou-le-moniteur-universel/22-mai-1793/149/1275281/1, access-date=2024-11-18, language=fr, ref={{harvid, Gazette nationale ou le Moniteur universel, 1793 * {{Citation, title=Gazette nationale ou le Moniteur universel, date=1795-10-25, url=https://www.retronews.fr/journal/gazette-nationale-ou-le-moniteur-universel/25-octobre-1795/149/1302729/1, access-date=2024-11-18, language=fr, ref={{harvid, Gazette nationale ou le Moniteur universel, 1795 * {{Citation, title=La Feuille du jour, date=1791-09-04, url=https://www.retronews.fr/journal/la-feuille-du-jour/4-septembre-1791/1789/3230363/1?from=/search#sort=score&publishedBounds=from&indexedBounds=from&tfPublicationsOr%25255B0%25255D=La%252520Feuille%252520du%252520jour&page=12&searchIn=article&total=601&index=277, access-date=2024-11-14, language=fr, ref={{harvid, La Feuille du jour, 1791 * {{Citation, title=La Quotidienne ou Feuille du jour, date=1797-04-29, url=https://www.retronews.fr/journal/la-quotidienne-ou-feuille-du-jour/29-avril-1797/2037/3145523/1?from=/search#sort=score&publishedBounds=from&indexedBounds=from&tfPublicationsOr%25255B0%25255D=La%252520Quotidienne%252520ou%252520Feuille%252520du%252520jour&page=11&searchIn=article&total=497&index=240, access-date=2024-11-14, language=fr, ref={{harvid, La Quotidienne ou Feuille du jour, 1797 * {{Citation, title=Le Courrier des spectacles, ou Journal des théâtres, date=1798-07-17, url=https://www.retronews.fr/journal/le-courrier-des-spectacles-ou-journal-des-theatres/17-juillet-1798/427/1496979/1, access-date=2024-11-15, language=fr, ref={{harvid, Le Courrier des spectacles, 1798a * {{Citation, title=Le Courrier des spectacles, ou Journal des théâtres, date=1798-08-28, url=https://www.retronews.fr/journal/le-courrier-des-spectacles-ou-journal-des-theatres/28-aout-1798/427/1501609/1, access-date=2024-11-15, language=fr, ref={{harvid, Le Courrier des spectacles, 1798b * {{Citation, title=Le Républicain français, date=1793-04-05, url=https://www.retronews.fr/journal/le-republicain-francais/5-avril-1793/435/1508829/1, access-date=2024-11-18, language=fr, ref={{harvid, Le Républicain français, 1793 * {{Cite book, last=Adams, first=John, editor-first1=L. H. , editor-last1=Butterfield, editor-first2=Leonard C., editor-last2=Faber, editor-first3=Wendell D., editor-last3=Garrett, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TiGozwEACAAJ, title=Diary and Autobiography of John Adams: Diary (1755-1804) and Autobiography (through 1780), year=1990 , orig-date=1961, publisher=Harvard University Press, isbn=978-0-674-20300-6 * {{Cite encyclopedia, url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000040089, encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , last1=Anderson , first1=Gordon A. , last2=Payne , first2=Thomas B. , last3=Heartz , first3=Daniel , last4=Freedman , first4=Richard , last5=Anthony , first5=James R. , last6=Eby , first6=John , last7=Cook , first7=Elisabeth , last8=Wilcox , first8=Beverly , last9=Rice , first9=Paul F. , last10=Charlton , first10=David , last11=Trevitt , first11=John , last12=Gosselin , first12=Guy , last13=Pasler , first13=Jann , title=Paris , editor-first1=John , editor-last1=Tyrrell , editor-first2=Stanley , editor-last2=Sadie, year=2001 , doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40089 , publisher=Oxford University Press, isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 , display-authors=1, url-access=subscription * {{cite book, last1=Angelo, first1=Henry, title=Reminiscences of Henry Angelo, date=1830, publisher=Colburn & Bently, location=London , url=https://archive.org/details/reminiscenceshe01angegoog * {{cite book, last=Angelo, first=Henry, title=Angelo's Pic-nic or Table Talk', url=https://archive.org/details/angelospicnicort00ange, date=1834, publisher=J. Ebers , location=London * {{cite book , last=Bachaumont , first=Louis Petit de , title=Mémoires secrets pour servir à l'histoire de la République en France , url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k206660z , language=fr , date=1779, location=London , publisher =John Adamson , volume=IV * {{Cite encyclopedia, last=Banat, first=Gabriel, url=http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000024316, encyclopedia=The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , title=Saint-Georges [Saint-George], Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de, year=2001, publisher=Oxford University Press, volume=1, doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.24316, isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 , url-access=subscription * {{cite book , last1=Banat , first1=Gabriel , title=The Chevalier de Saint-Georges: Virtuoso of the Sword and the Bow , date=2006 , publisher=Pendragon Press , isbn=978-1-57647-109-8 , location=Hillsdale, New York , oclc=, url=https://archive.org/details/chevalierdesaint0000bana/page/n5/mode/2up , url-access=registration * {{cite book , last=Bardin , first=Pierre , date=2006 , title=Joseph de Saint George, le Chevalier Noir , language=fr , location=Paris , publisher=Guénégaud , isbn=2-85023-126-6 * {{cite web , url=http://www.ghcaraibe.org/articles/2015-art11.pdf , title=Guillaume Delorme – Le Montagnard , first1=Pierre , last1=Bardin, year=2015 * {{Cite web , url=http://www.ghcaraibe.org/articles/2015-art01.pdf , title=La mere du Chevalier de Saint George enfin retrouvee! , last=Bardin , first=Pierre , date=2015b , website=Genealogie et histoire de la Caribe, access-date=26 September 2019 * {{cite book, last=Brenet , first=Michel , author-link=Marie Bobillier , date=1900 , title=Les Concerts en France sous l'Ancien Régime , url=https://archive.org/details/lesconcertsenf00bren , language=fr , location=Paris , publisher=Fishbacher * {{Cite book, last=Boysse, first=Ernest, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y-w5AwAAQBAJ, title=Journal de Papillon de La Ferte, Intendant Et Controleur de L'Argenterie, Menus-Plaisirs Et Affaires de La Chambre Du Roi (1756-1780), date=2011-06-12, publisher=Lulu.com, isbn=978-1-4477-4628-7, language=fr * {{Cite book, title=The French encounter with Africans : white response to Blacks, 1530-1880, last=Cohen , first=William B., date=2003, publisher=Indiana University Press, isbn=0253216508, oclc=52992323 * {{Cite encyclopedia, last=Cornaz, first=Marie, title=Godefroy de la Rivière, François, encyclopedia=Oxford Music Online, url=http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/documentID/omo-9781561592630-e-0000043049 , editor-first1=John , editor-last1=Tyrrell , editor-first2=Stanley , editor-last2=Sadie, year=2001 , access-date=2024-11-13, publisher=Oxford University Press, doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.43049, isbn=978-1-56159-263-0, url-access=subscription * {{Cite journal , last=Cousté , first=Francis , date=2016-07-01 , title=Le long compagnonnage de la musique et de la franc-maçonnerie: Libres propos , trans-title=The long association of the music and freemasonry: Free remarks. , trans-journal=The chain of union , url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-la-chaine-d-union-2016-3-page-50.htm?ref=doi , journal=La Chaîne d'Union , volume=77 , issue=3 , pages=50–59 , doi=10.3917/cdu.077.0050 , issn=0292-8000, url-access=subscription * {{cite book , last=Cronin , first=Vincent , author-link=Vincent Cronin , title=Louis and Antoinette , publisher=The Harvill Press , location=London , year=1989 , isbn=978-0-00-272021-2 * {{Cite book, last=Descaves, first=Paul, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHKsNMeASxgC, title=Historique du 13me Régiment de Chasseurs et des Chasseurs à Cheval de la Garde, date=1891, publisher=A. Bouineau & cie, language=fr * {{Cite book, first=Charles-François Du Périer dit, last=Dumouriez, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8r-IPZw4nAgC, title=La vie et les memoires du general Dumouriez, avec des notes et des eclaircissemens historiques par MM. Berville et Barriere. Tome premier [-quatrieme], date=1822, publisher=Baudouin freres, imprimeurs-libraires, language=fr * {{Cite book, last=Elliott, first=Grace Dalrymple, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5UxEAAAAIAAJ, title=During the Reign of Terror: Journal of My Life During the French Revolution, date=1910, publisher=Sturgis & Walton Company * {{cite book, last=Fusil , first=Louise , date=1841 , title=Souvenirs d'une actrice , url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k627923 , language=fr , location=Paris , publisher=Charles Schmit * {{cite book , last1=Gossec , first1=François-Joseph , author-link=François-Joseph Gossec , title=Six Trios pour deux violons, basse et cors ad libitum dont les trois premiers ne doivent s'exécuter qu'à trois personnes et les trois autres à grande orchestre , date=1766 , publisher=Bailleux , url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b9066386c.image *{{Cite book, title=Haydn : the "Paris" symphonies, last=Harrison, first= Bernard, date=1998, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F48pnh3THq0C, publisher=Cambridge University Press, isbn=0521477433, oclc=807548876 * {{Cite book, last=Hochschild, first=Adam, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wQ9fRdRJUcC, title=Bury the Chains: Prophets and Rebels in the Fight to Free an Empire's Slaves, date=2005, publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, isbn=978-0-618-10469-7 * {{cite book, last=La Boëssière , first=Antoine , date=1818 , title= Traité de l'art des armes à l'usage des professeurs et des amateurs, url=https://archive.org/details/traitdelartdesa00bogoog , language=fr , location=Paris , publisher=Didot * {{cite book, last=La Borde , first=Jean-Benjamin , date=1780 , title=Essai sur la musique ancienne et moderne , url=https://archive.org/details/essaisurlamusiqu02labo , language=fr , location=Paris , publisher=Pierres * {{cite book, last=La Harpe, first=Jean François de, title=Correspondance littéraire, adressée à Son Altesse Impériale Mgr le grand-duc, aujourd'hui Empereur de Russie, et à M. le Cte André Schowalow,... depuis 1774 jusqu'à 1789. T. 6 / par Jean-François Laharpe, year=1807, publisher=Migneret, url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k205353j, access-date=3 April 2018, language=fr * {{cite book, last=La Laurencie , first=Lionel , author-link1=Lionel de La Laurencie, date=1922 , title=L'École Française de violon, de Lully à Viotti Vol. II , url=https://archive.org/details/lcolefranais02lala, language=fr , location=Paris , publisher=De la Grave * {{Cite journal, last=Ledford, first=Julian A., year=2020, title=Joseph Boulogne, the Chevalier de Saint-George and the Problem With Black Mozart, url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021934719892239, journal=Journal of Black Studies, language=en, volume=51, issue=1, pages=60–82, doi=10.1177/0021934719892239, issn=0021-9347, url-access=subscription * {{cite book , last1=Lolli , first1=Antonio , title=Deux Concerto a violon principal, premier et second dessus, alto et basses , date=1764 , publisher=Le Menu , location=Paris, url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b9078720w.image * {{Cite book, last=von Grimm, first=Baron Friedrich Melchior, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N3lkAAAAcAAJ, title=Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique de Grimm et de Diderot, depuis 1753 jusqu'en 1790: 1772 - 1776. 8, date=1830, publisher=Furne, language=fr * {{cite book, last=Prod'homme , first=Jacques-Gabriel , date=1949 , author-link1=Jacques-Gabriel Prod'homme , title=François Gossec, la vie, les oeuvres, l'homme et l'artiste , language=fr , location=Paris , publisher=La Colombe * {{cite book , last1=Rappleye , first1=Charles , title=Robert Morris: Financier of the American Revolution , date=2010 , publisher=Simon & Schuster , isbn=978-1-4165-7091-2 , url-access=registration , url=https://archive.org/details/robertm_rap_2010_00_1148 * {{Cite book, last=Reiss, first=Tom, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z9PpVYyJZYkC, title=The Black Count: Glory, Revolution, Betrayal, and the Real Count of Monte Cristo, date=2012, publisher=Crown Trade, isbn=978-0-307-38246-7 * {{cite book, last=Ribbe , first=Claude , date=2004 , title=Le Chevalier de Saint-George , language=fr , location=Paris , publisher=Perrin , isbn=2-262-02002-7 * {{Cite book, last=Robespierre, year=1958, title=Œuvres complètes de Maximilien Robespierre, trans-chapter=Speech Robespierre against Brissot and the girondins, first=Maximilien, chapter=Discours contre Brissot & les girondins, via=Wikisource, url=https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Discours_contre_Brissot_&_les_girondins#, access-date=2024-11-14, language=fr * {{Cite book, last=Saint-Georges, first=Joseph, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zy9aAAAAcAAJ, title=Nous sommes donc trois? ou le provincial à Paris, date=1790, language=fr * {{cite book, last=Schama, first=Simon, author-link=Simon Schama, title=Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution, year=1989, publisher=Vintage Books, Alfred A. Knopf, location=New York, isbn=0679726101, edition=1st Vintage Books, url=https://archive.org/details/citizenschronicl00scha_0 * {{Cite book , last1=Soboul , first1=Albert , title=The French Revolution: 1787–1799 , year=1974 , publisher=Random House , location=New York , isbn=0-394-47392-2 , url-access=registration , url=https://archive.org/details/frenchrevolution0000sobo * {{cite book , last1=Stamitz , first1=Carl , title=Sei Quartetti per due violini, viola e basso i quali potranno esse eseguiti a grande orchestra , date=1770 , publisher=Bureau d'abonnement musical , location=Paris * {{Cite journal, last=Taylor, first=George V., date=December 1980, title=Necker: Reform Statesman of the Ancien Regime. By Robert D. Harris. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979. Pp. 271. $16.50., url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/abs/necker-reform-statesman-of-the-ancien-regime-by-robert-d-harris-berkeley-university-of-california-press-1979-pp-271-1650/E17F6F783E9BA6A4889A9B632B68BF5A, journal=The Journal of Economic History, volume=40, issue=4, pages=877–879, doi=10.1017/S0022050700100518, issn=1471-6372, url-access=subscription * {{Cite book, last=Thompson, first=J. M., url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DfIwDwAAQBAJ, title=Leaders of the French Revolution, date=2017-07-11, publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing, isbn=978-1-78720-633-5 * {{cite book, last=Vigée-Lebrun, first=Elizabeth, author-link=Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, title=Souvenirs, year=1869, language=fr, location=Paris, url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/23019/23019-h/23019-h.htm, access-date=21 October 2019, publisher=Charpentier * {{Cite book, last=Wallon, first=Henri Alexandre, url=https://archive.org/details/histoiredutribun01walluoft/mode/2up, title=Histoire du Tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris : avec le Journal de ses actes, date=1880–1882, ref=Wallon1880, publisher=Hachette, location=Paris, others=Robarts - University of Toronto * {{Cite book, last=Williams, first=Hugh Noel, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDgbAAAAYAAJ, title=Later Queens of the French Stage, date=1906, publisher=C. Scribner's Sons


General references

* {{cite book , last1=Banat, first1=Gabriel , title=Masters of the Violin Volume 3 : Violin Concertos and Two Symphonies Concertantes , year=1981 , publisher=Johnson Reprint Corp , isbn=9780384031838 *{{cite book , last1=Braham, first1=Allan, title=The Architecture of the French Enlightenment, date=1989, publisher=Thames and Hudson , location=London , url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_EstKYtJpOK0C, access-date=3 April 2018 * {{cite book, last=Denys , first=Odet , date=1972 , title=Qui était le chevalier de Saint-Georges? , language=fr , location=Paris , publisher=Le Pavillon * {{cite book, last=Edwards, first= Bryan, title= A Historical Survey of the French Colony on the Island of St. Domingo, url=https://archive.org/details/historicalsurvey01edwa, year=1797, location=London, publisher= Stockdale * {{Cite book, last=Stillé, first=Charles J., date=2010, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KP4JkgAACAAJ, title=Beaumarchais and the Lost Million a Chapter of the Secret History of the American Revolution, publisher=BiblioBazaar, isbn=978-1-171-64746-1


Further reading

* {{cite journal, last=Banat, first=Gabriel, author-link=Gabriel Banat, date=Autumn 1990, title=The Chevalier de Saint-Georges, Man of Music and Gentleman-at-Arms, the Life and Times of an Eighteenth Century Prodigy, location=Chicago , publisher=Columbia College , volume=10, issue=2, pages=177–212, journal=Black Music Research Journal, doi=10.2307/779385, jstor=779385, ref=none * {{cite book, last=Beauvoir, first=Roger de, author-link=Roger de Beauvoir, date=1840, title=Le Chevalier de Saint-Georges, url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k209341j, language=fr, location=Paris, publisher=Lévy frères * {{cite book , last=Bisdary-Gourbeyre , first=Conseil Général de la Guadeloupe , date=2001 , title= Le fleuret et l'archet, Le Chevalier de Saint-George (1739? – 1799) , language=fr , publisher=Actes Sud , location=Guadeloupe , ref=none * {{cite book, last=Guédé , first=Alain , date=1999 , title=Monsieur de Saint-George, le Négre des lumières , language=fr , location=Paris , publisher=Actes Sud , isbn=2-7427-2390-0, ref=none * Jones, Isola Charlayne (2016) Observations and Insights into the Life and Vocal Work of Joseph Bologne (Chevalier de Saint-Georges) * {{cite book, last1=Peabody, first1=Sue, title="There are no slaves in France" : the political culture of race and slavery in the Ancien Régime, date=1996, publisher=Oxford Univ. Press, location=New York, isbn=0-19-510198-7, edition= , ref=none * {{cite journal, last=Quoy-Bodin, first=J. L., title=L'Orchestre de la Société Olympique en 1786, journal=Revue de Musicologie, language=fr, location=Paris, publisher=Bibliothèque historique de la Ville de Paris, issue=1, pages=95–107, doi=10.2307/928657, jstor=928657, year=1984, volume=70 , ref=none * {{cite book, last1=Smidak, first1=Emil F., title=Joseph Boulogne called Chevalier de Saint-Georges, date=1996, publisher=Avenira Foundation, location=Lucerne, Switzerland, isbn=3-905112-07-8, edition= English, ref=none


External links

{{Commons category, Joseph Boulogne de Saint-George * {{IMSLP, id=Saint-Georges, Joseph Bologne
Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de Saint-Georges (1745-1799)
5 Episodes broadcast on BBC Radio3's Composer of the Week series, August 2024
Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de Saint-Georges (1745-99)
Christopher Dingle's website dedicated to research on the music of Chevalier de Saint-Georges

by the French musicologist Michelle Garnier-Panafieu * Th
Festival International de Musique Saint-Georges
website * {{Official website, https://www.searchlightpictures.com/chevalier of Chevalier (2022 film), ''Chevalier'' (2022 film)
Search results for Chevalier de Saint-Georges
in the {{lang, fr, Catalogue de la bibliothèque du Centre de musique baroque de Versailles {{Authority control, state=collapsed {{DEFAULTSORT:Saint-Georges, Le Chevalier De 1745 births 1799 deaths French Classical-period composers 18th-century French classical composers 18th-century French male musicians 18th-century French violinists French male classical violinists Classical composers of African descent Black French musicians Free people of color French Freemasons French male foil fencers French male violinists French opera composers French people of Guadeloupean descent French people of Senegalese descent French Republican military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars French male opera composers French string quartet composers People from the French West Indies