Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse (Pterocles Exustus)
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The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse or common sandgrouse (''Pterocles exustus'') is a species of
sandgrouse Sandgrouse is the common name for Pteroclidae (), a family (biology), family of sixteen species of bird, members of the order Pterocliformes (). They are traditionally placed in two Genus, genera. The two central Asian species are classified as ...
. It is a sedentary and nomadic species that ranges from northern and central Africa and further east towards western and southern Asia. There are six recognised subspecies.Gouraud, C., Frahnert, S., Gamauf, A., & van der Mije, S. (2016). Review of the type series of Pterocles exustus Temminck, 1825 (Aves, Pterocliformes, Pteroclidae) and designation of a lectotype. Zookeys, 580, 145-152. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.580.7892 The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is
sexually dimorphic Sexual dimorphism is the condition where sexes of the same species exhibit different Morphology (biology), morphological characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most dioecy, di ...
in
plumage Plumage () is a layer of feathers that covers a bird and the pattern, colour, and arrangement of those feathers. The pattern and colours of plumage differ between species and subspecies and may vary with age classes. Within species, there can b ...
colouration and varies in overall plumage colouration between the six subspecies. The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is a bird of barren, semi-deserts. It is heavily reliant on water, despite living in hot, arid climates and is known to travel up to in a day to search for water.GRID-Arendal. (2015). Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse (Pterocles exustus), Amboseli National Park, Kenya. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.grida.no/resources/2320 Chestnut-bellied sandgrouse are selective feeders which primarily subsist on seeds, often preferring to consume small seeds in large amounts.


Taxonomy

The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is a species of sandgrouse placed in the genus
Pterocles ''Pterocles '' is a genus of near passerine birds in the sandgrouse family. It includes all the species in the family except for two central Asian species in '' Syrrhaptes''. These sandgrouse have small, pigeon-like heads and necks, but sturdy c ...
. Sandgrouse belong to the family Pteroclididae, which belongs to the order Pteroclidiformes.Tschudin, A., Arif, A., & Hammer, A. (2008). Investigation of causes of mortality in captive Chestnut Bellied Sandgrouse (Pterocles exustus ellioti) at Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation from 2001 to 2006. In 7th Congress of the European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians (pp. 435-440). Leipzig, Germany: The European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians. This means they are more closely related to pigeons and doves and are not a type of
grouse Grouse are a group of birds from the order (biology), order Galliformes, in the family (biology), family Phasianidae. Grouse are presently assigned to the Tribe (biology), tribe Tetraonini (formerly the subfamily Tetraoninae and the family Tetr ...
. There are six recognised subspecies of chestnut-bellied sandgrouse: * ''P. ex. exustus'':
Senegal Senegal, officially the Republic of Senegal, is the westernmost country in West Africa, situated on the Atlantic Ocean coastline. It borders Mauritania to Mauritania–Senegal border, the north, Mali to Mali–Senegal border, the east, Guinea t ...
,
Gambia The Gambia, officially the Republic of The Gambia, is a country in West Africa. Geographically, The Gambia is the List of African countries by area, smallest country in continental Africa; it is surrounded by Senegal on all sides except for ...
,
Mauritania Mauritania, officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a sovereign country in Maghreb, Northwest Africa. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Western Sahara to Mauritania–Western Sahara border, the north and northwest, ...
and
Sudan Sudan, officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northeast Africa. It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopi ...
. * ''P. e. floweri'': endemic to the
Nile Valley The Nile (also known as the Nile River or River Nile) is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa. It has historically been considered the longest river i ...
of
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
and thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 2012. * ''P. e. ellioti'': southeastern
Sudan Sudan, officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northeast Africa. It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopi ...
, eastern
Eritrea Eritrea, officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa, with its capital and largest city being Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia in the Eritrea–Ethiopia border, south, Sudan in the west, and Dj ...
, northern
Ethiopia Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the northeast, Somalia to the east, Ken ...
and
Somalia Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia, is the easternmost country in continental Africa. The country is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, th ...
. * ''P. e. olivascens:'' southeastern
South Sudan South Sudan (), officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered on the north by Sudan; on the east by Ethiopia; on the south by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya; and on the ...
, southwestern Ethiopia,
Kenya Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country located in East Africa. With an estimated population of more than 52.4 million as of mid-2024, Kenya is the 27th-most-populous country in the world and the 7th most populous in Africa. ...
and Northern
Tanzania Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to t ...
. * ''P. e. erlangeri'': southwestern
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...
,
Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...
and
Oman Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia and the Middle East. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Oman’s coastline ...
. * ''P. e. hindustan'': southeastern eastern
Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
,
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...
and
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
.


Description

The birds appear as small to medium-sized, brownish sandgrouses with an elongated and pointed tail when in flight. When grounded, they appear as very short-legged birds, with a small head. They will stretch out their long necks when wary. There are six recognised subspecies of chestnut-bellied sandgrouse. The overall plumage colouration varies between the six subspecies. The subspecies that inhabits the Nile Valley (''P. e. floweri'') have darker and greyer colouration on their heads, mantle and breasts and have less yellowish colouration on the upper wing-
coverts A covert feather or tectrix on a bird is one of a set of feathers, called coverts (or ''tectrices''), which cover other feathers. The coverts help to smooth airflow over the wings and tail. Ear coverts The ear coverts are small feathers behind t ...
and scapulars than the
nominate subspecies In biological classification, subspecies (: subspecies) is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics ( morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. ...
, ''Pterocles exustus exustus'' (Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania and Sudan). ''P. e. ellioti'' (southeastern Sudan, to Somalia), ''P. e. erlangeri'' (southwestern Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman) and ''P. e. hindustan'' (Iran, Pakistan and India) are all paler and greyer than the nominate subspecies. ''P. e. olivascens'' (South Sudan to Northern Tanzania) has distinct greyer olive colouration on their upperparts and wings, with females having more heavily barred and streaked underparts than the nominate subspecies. There are six recognised subspecies of chestnut-bellied sandgrouse. The overall plumage colouration varies between the six subspecies. The subspecies, ''Pterocles exustus floweri'' that inhabits the Nile Valley have darker and greyer colouration on their heads, mantle and breasts and have less yellowish colouration on the upper wing-coverts and scapulars than the nominate subspecies, ''P. e. exustus'' (Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania and Sudan). ''P. e. ellioti'' (southeastern Sudan, to Somalia), ''P. e. erlangeri'' (southwestern Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman) and Pterocles exustus Hindustan (Iran, Pakistan and India) are all paler and greyer than the nominate subspecies. ''P. e. olivascens'' (South Sudan to Northern Tanzania) has distinct greyer olive colouration on their upperparts and wings, with females having more heavily barred and streaked underparts than the nominate subspecies. The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is sexually dimorphic in colouration. The subspecies that is found in abundance in the Thar and Sindh Deserts is easily distinguishable by plumage colouration. The male's upper parts, from the crown to upper tail are a covert isabelline-grey/brown colour. The lores, cheeks, chin, and throat are a dull yellow-
ochre Ochre ( ; , ), iron ochre, or ocher in American English, is a natural clay earth pigment, a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand. It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colou ...
and often tinged with orange-
buff Buff or BUFF may refer to: People * Buff (surname), a list of people * Buff (nickname), a list of people * Johnny Buff, ring name of American world champion boxer John Lisky (1888–1955) * Buff Bagwell, a ring name of American professional wr ...
that extends around the neck like a collar and shading off towards the scapular and interscapular feathers, shading into
ocherous Ochre ( ; , ), iron ochre, or ocher in American English, is a natural clay earth pigment, a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand. It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colo ...
-buff at the tips and edged with brown. The wing feathers are a buff or ocherous-buff shading into olive towards the inner bottom wing. The bird's upper breast is a
vinous The color wine, or wine red (also called bordeaux, vinous, or vinaceous), is a dark shade of red. It is a representation of the typical color of red wine. The first recorded use of ''wine'' as a color name in English was in 1705. The word ''b ...
-buff and separated by a narrow band of black boarded with white. The lower breast has a dull yellow-buff that changes gradually into a chocolate colour, with the centre of the abdomen is black. The under tail and tarsus in a creamy-buff. The centre tail is the same isabelline-grey/brown as the upper tail feathers, becoming black towards the prolonged narrow portions. The female's upper plumage is a dull-buff streaked with dark brown marks at the back of the neck, increasing to blotches, with other parts becoming broad bars. The wing feathers are the same as the back, but the feathers are tipped broadly with buff, with some coverts edged with brown. The neck, breast and sides of the head are vinous in colour, with black spots. The lower breast is a dull pale ochre-buff, with the abdomen to the vent closely barred with dark brown. And the under-tail covert feathers are creamy buff. The subspecies ''P. e. floweri'', which inhabits the Nile Valley, are easily distinguishable between the sexes. The males tend to have an orange tone around their necks and faces, with sharp demarcated black lines across the pale upper breast. The male's face and throat are a yellowish colour, faintly contrasted with a greyish
crown A crown is a traditional form of head adornment, or hat, worn by monarchs as a symbol of their power and dignity. A crown is often, by extension, a symbol of the monarch's government or items endorsed by it. The word itself is used, parti ...
, neck and breast. The breast and neck of the females are heavily mottled with brown and white, lacking the black lines across the breast that the males possess.


Distribution and habitat

The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is found across most of northern and
central Africa Central Africa (French language, French: ''Afrique centrale''; Spanish language, Spanish: ''África central''; Portuguese language, Portuguese: ''África Central'') is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries accordin ...
and further east towards western and southern Asia. These birds are wide-stretching, inhibiting mostly the
Afrotropic The Afrotropical realm is one of the Earth's eight biogeographic realms. It includes Sub-Saharan Africa, the southern Arabian Peninsula, the island of Madagascar, and the islands of the western Indian Ocean. It was formerly known as the Ethiopi ...
and
Indomalayan The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia. Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Ind ...
biogeographic realms. The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse tends to prefer bare, bushy arid and sandy plains as its habitat. The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse that can be found in India is found most abundantly in the Thar or Sindh Desert. During the summer, where water is scarce, these birds often can be found conglomerating at a single
waterhole Waterhole or water hole may refer to: * Watering hole, a depression in the ground in which water can collect, or a more permanent pool in the bed of an ephemeral river * Water hole (radio), an especially quiet region of the electromagnetic spectru ...
to drink in their thousands. During the rainy seasons, when water is more plentiful, the birds tend to travel in smaller flocks. In Egypt, a subspecies (floweri) of chestnut-bellied sandgrouse was first discovered in the mid-19th century, and are found endemically in the Nile Valley. In the late 19th century, it was the most abundant species of sandgrouse inhabiting Egypt, but by 1929, they were already found to be scarce.Before being rediscovered in 2012, the last and most recent recorded observation was from 4 March 1979. The subspecies was rediscovered by a team of Austrian and German ornithologists while working in the Egyptian Nile valley in March 2012.


Behaviour

The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is sedentary, unlike most species of sandgrouse who are migratory. However, the species exhibits extensive local movements. During the summer, when water is scarce, the birds will move to nearby areas where water is still available. The birds also appear to periodically move over long distances based on the availability of food supplies.


Diet and feeding

The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse, like all species of sandgrouse, feeds on small seeds, small insects and fallen berries.Rahmani, A. (n.d.). The Sandgrouse has a Trick up its Belly. Retrieved from roundglass , sustain website: https://round.glass/sustain/species/sandgrouse/ Their diet primarily consists of small seeds, often consumed in large quantities, mostly from
leguminous Legumes are plants in the pea family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as a dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called pulses. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consum ...
plants. The environment these birds tend to inhabit is often arid, and water is scarce. However, these birds water regularly every day and will tend to concentrate around available water sources. They prefer to water once a day at sunrise but have been observed to water a second time before sunset, although this is less common.


Breeding

Chestnut-bellied sandgrouse are
sexually mature Sexual maturity is the capability of an organism to reproduce. In humans, it is related to both puberty and adulthood. ''Puberty'' is the biological process of sexual maturation, while ''adulthood'', the condition of being socially recognized as ...
after one year following hatching. There is no information on the life span of the birds in the wild, but wild-trapped adult birds have survived up to 3 years in captivity in Nevada. During the breeding season, males will be in new fresh brightly coloured plumage and will possess distinctive elongated central tail feathers. Females are courted with short chases and low vocalisation, and are often courted by several males at once, but will be quickly followed by one male, only after a short period.Jensen, S., Taha, A., & Arif, A. (2007). Husbandry of the Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse at Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation. International Zoo News, 54(2), 80-84. The females will lay around three to six eggs in nests built into shallow scrapings in the ground when in captivity. In the Thar and Sindh desserts, the birds also nest in shallow depressions scratched into the ground but with three eggs per nest. The nests are built out in the open with no attempts of hiding the nests. The eggs of the sandgrouses commonly found in the Thar and Sindh deserts appear to be pale grey-stone or yellowish-stone in colour, covered in small blotches and spots of varying shades of brown, with grey and lavender coloured secondary markings. The eggs have an average size of . In captivity, incubation is done mainly by the female, with all the young hatching simultaneously after the end of the incubation period. In the wild, males have been observed to incubate at night. Once hatched, the chicks will remain near the nest for the first day or two. In the Thar and Sindh deserts, hatchings are precocious and would leave the nest shortly after hatching.


Predators and threats

The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse appears to be highly resilient against diseases. It is not susceptible to
Newcastle disease Virulent Newcastle disease (VND), formerly exotic Newcastle disease, is a contagious viral avian disease affecting many domestic and wild bird species; it is transmissible to humans. Though it can infect humans, most cases are non-symptomati ...
or
fowlpox Fowlpox is the worldwide disease of poultry caused by viruses of the family ''Poxviridae'' and the genus '' Avipoxvirus''. The viruses causing fowlpox are distinct from one another but antigenically similar, possible hosts including chickens, tu ...
, and seems to be relatively resistant to common communicable diseases of
poultry Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting animal products such as meat, Eggs as food, eggs or feathers. The practice of animal husbandry, raising poultry is known as poultry farming. These birds are most typ ...
. Though it is known to host parasites like pinworms, such infestations are exceedingly rare.
Falcon Falcons () are birds of prey in the genus ''Falco'', which includes about 40 species. Some small species of falcons with long, narrow wings are called hobbies, and some that hover while hunting are called kestrels. Falcons are widely distrib ...
s are known to hunt chestnut-bellied sandgrouse at waterholes in India.


Relationship with humans


Hunting

The species was introduced by the
Nevada Nevada ( ; ) is a landlocked state in the Western United States. It borders Oregon to the northwest, Idaho to the northeast, California to the west, Arizona to the southeast, and Utah to the east. Nevada is the seventh-most extensive, th ...
state
game A game is a structured type of play usually undertaken for entertainment or fun, and sometimes used as an educational tool. Many games are also considered to be work (such as professional players of spectator sports or video games) or art ...
department into Hawaii as a trial run to see if they would be suitable as a recreational game species in Nevada.Hawaii.gov (n.d.). Pterocles Exustus , Chestnut-Bellied Sandgrouse. Retrieved from Hawai’i Birding Trials website: https://hawaiibirdingtrails.hawaii.gov/bird/chestnut-bellied-sandgrouse/ The birds were introduced to the islands of Hawaii,
Molokai Molokai or Molokai ( or ; Molokaʻi dialect: Morotaʻi ) is the fifth most populated of the eight major islands that make up the Hawaiian Islands archipelago in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. It is 38 by 10 miles (61 by 16 km) at its g ...
, and
Kauai Kauai (), anglicized as Kauai ( or ), is one of the main Hawaiian Islands. It has an area of 562.3 square miles (1,456.4 km2), making it the fourth-largest of the islands and the 21st-largest island in the United States. Kauai lies 73 m ...
between 1961 and 1962. The species was released in Japan, in
Pahranagat Valley The Pahranagat Valley is a Tonopah Basin landform in Lincoln County, Nevada. The more fertile part of Pahranagat Valley is a narrow ribbon of green (no more than wide), like an oasis in the vast Nevada desert. It is approximately long, running ...
,
Pahrump Valley Pahrump Valley is a Mojave Desert valley west of Las Vegas and the Spring Mountains massif in southern Nye County, Nevada, and eastern San Bernardino County, California. Pahrump, Nevada, is in the valley's center and the Tecopa and Chicago Valley ...
and
Moapa Valley Moapa Valley is an unincorporated town in Clark County, Nevada, United States. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 6,924. The valley in which the community lies, also named Moapa Valley, is about long and lies roughly northwest to sou ...
. The birds that were released in Pahranagat Valley in 1960 left immediately and no further attempts to release the species there were made. The birds were released in Pahrump and Moapa Valleys springs of 1960 and 1961. During each release, there was an initial exodus of birds, but a few remained throughout the summer to early fall. But all eventually left during the winter periods. There were reports of two sandgrouses, both from the 1960 and 1961 releases respectively in Pahrump Valley, who were shot at
Navajoa ''Pediocactus'' (Greek: πεδίον (pedion) means "plain", "flat", "field") is a genus of cacti native to the Western United States. The genus comprises between 6 and 11 species, depending upon the authority. Species of this genus are referred ...
, Sonora,
Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...
on February 10, 1962. This indicates that these birds may have migrated towards the desert regions south of their initial release locations.


In captivity

Despite being attractive birds, they are rarely kept in captivity. This low availability may be due in part to their flightiness and the difficulties of establishing them in captivity. A study published in 2008 found that the major contributing factor to the mortality rates of birds in captivity comes from social stress and the flightiness of this species. The study investigated 50 dead chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse in the Al Wabra preservation, through
autopsies An autopsy (also referred to as post-mortem examination, obduction, necropsy, or autopsia cadaverum) is a surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse by dissection to determine the cause, mode, and manner of death; ...
, they found that 38% of the birds died from
trauma Trauma most often refers to: *Psychological trauma, in psychology and psychiatric medicine, refers to severe mental and emotional injury caused by distressing events *Traumatic injury, sudden physical injury caused by an external force, which doe ...
, namely head trauma as they were flying into the wire mesh of their enclosures. Another major cause of the mortalities in these birds came from
emaciation Emaciation is defined as the state of extreme thinness from absence of body fat and muscle wasting usually resulting from malnutrition. It is often seen as the opposite of obesity. Characteristics Emaciation manifests physically as thin limbs, pr ...
. These occurred the most in chicks, as 12% of the animals had died as a result of emaciation. However, the adults were found to have poor body conditions, and it was correlated to any
chronic diseases A chronic condition (also known as chronic disease or chronic illness) is a health condition or disease that is persistent or otherwise long-lasting in its effects or a disease that comes with time. The term ''chronic'' is often applied when the ...
. This indicated that one of the main causes of death was stress. Attempts by the State of Nevada to breed these birds in captivity between 1959 and 1961 had failed. Breeding experiments were attempted on the
Utah Utah is a landlocked state in the Mountain states, Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It is one of the Four Corners states, sharing a border with Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico. It also borders Wyoming to the northea ...
State Game Farm at
Price A price is the (usually not negative) quantity of payment or compensation expected, required, or given by one party to another in return for goods or services. In some situations, especially when the product is a service rather than a ph ...
and resulted in only one egg laid by the end of 1962.


References


External sources


Saint Louis Zoo
{{Taxonbar, from=Q127903
chestnut-bellied sandgrouse The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse or common sandgrouse (''Pterocles exustus'') is a species of sandgrouse. It is a sedentary and nomadic species that ranges from northern and central Africa and further east towards western and southern Asia. There ...
Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa Birds of East Africa Birds of the Middle East Birds of South Asia
chestnut-bellied sandgrouse The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse or common sandgrouse (''Pterocles exustus'') is a species of sandgrouse. It is a sedentary and nomadic species that ranges from northern and central Africa and further east towards western and southern Asia. There ...