Chemistry (etymology)
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The word
chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...
derives from the word
alchemy Alchemy (from the Arabic word , ) is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practised in China, India, the Muslim world, and Europe. In its Western form, alchemy is first ...
, which is found in various forms in European languages. The word 'alchemy' itself derives from the
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
word ''al-kīmiyāʾ'' (), wherein ''
al- (, also romanized as ''el-'', ''il-'', and ''l-'' as pronounced in some varieties of Arabic), is the definite article in the Arabic language: a particle (''ḥarf'') whose function is to render the noun on which it is prefixed definite. For ex ...
'' is the definite article 'the'. The ultimate origin of the word is uncertain, but the Arabic term ''kīmiyāʾ'' () is likely derived from either the
Ancient Greek Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...
word ''khēmeia'' () or the similar ''khēmia'' ()."alchemy", entry in ''The Oxford English Dictionary'', J. A. Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989, . The Greek term ''khēmeia'', meaning "cast together" may refer to the art of alloying metals, from root words χύμα (khúma, "fluid"), from χέω (khéō, "I pour"). Alternatively, ''khēmia'' may be derived from the ancient
Egyptian ''Egyptian'' describes something of, from, or related to Egypt. Egyptian or Egyptians may refer to: Nations and ethnic groups * Egyptians, a national group in North Africa ** Egyptian culture, a complex and stable culture with thousands of year ...
name of
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
, ''khem'' or ''khm'', ''khame'', or ''khmi'', meaning "blackness", likely in reference to the rich dark soil of the
Nile The Nile (also known as the Nile River or River Nile) is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa. It has historically been considered the List of river sy ...
river valley.


Overview

There are two main views on the derivation of the Greek word. According to one, the word comes from the greek ''χημεία'' (chimeía), pouring, infusion, used in connexion with the study of the juices of plants, and thence extended to chemical manipulations in general; this derivation accounts for the old-fashioned spellings "chymist" and "chymistry". The other view traces it to ''khem'' or ''khame'', hieroglyph ''khmi'', which denotes black earth as opposed to barren sand, and occurs in
Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...
as ''χημία'' (chimía); on this derivation alchemy is explained as meaning the "Egyptian art". The first occurrence of the word is said to be in a treatise of Julius Firmicus, an astrological writer of the 4th century, but the prefix al there must be the addition of a later Arabic copyist. In English,
Piers Plowman ''Piers Plowman'' (written 1370–86; possibly ) or ''Visio Willelmi de Petro Ploughman'' (''William's Vision of Piers Plowman'') is a Middle English allegorical narrative poem by William Langland. It is written in un-rhymed, alliterative ...
(1362) contains the phrase "experimentis of alconomye", with variants "alkenemye" and " alknamye". The prefix ''al'' began to be dropped about the middle of the 16th century (further details of which are given below).


Egyptian origin

According to the Egyptologist Wallis Budge, the Arabic word ''al-kīmiyaʾ'' actually means "the Egyptian cience, borrowing from the Coptic word for "Egypt", ''kēme'' (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval Bohairic dialect of Coptic, ''khēme''). This Coptic word derives from
Demotic Demotic may refer to: * Demotic Greek, the modern vernacular form of the Greek language * Demotic (Egyptian), an ancient Egyptian script and version of the language * Chữ Nôm Chữ Nôm (, ) is a logographic writing system formerly used t ...
''kmỉ'', itself from ancient
Egyptian ''Egyptian'' describes something of, from, or related to Egypt. Egyptian or Egyptians may refer to: Nations and ethnic groups * Egyptians, a national group in North Africa ** Egyptian culture, a complex and stable culture with thousands of year ...
''kmt''. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "Black Land", by contrast with the "Red Land", the surrounding desert); so this etymology could also explain the nickname "Egyptian black arts". However, according to Mahn, this theory may be an example of
folk etymology Folk etymology – also known as (generative) popular etymology, analogical reformation, (morphological) reanalysis and etymological reinterpretation – is a change in a word or phrase resulting from the replacement of an unfamiliar form by a mo ...
. Assuming an Egyptian origin, chemistry is defined as follows: :Chemistry, from the ancient
Egyptian ''Egyptian'' describes something of, from, or related to Egypt. Egyptian or Egyptians may refer to: Nations and ethnic groups * Egyptians, a national group in North Africa ** Egyptian culture, a complex and stable culture with thousands of year ...
word "khēmia" meaning transmutation of earth, is the
science Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...
of
matter In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic pa ...
at the
atom Atoms are the basic particles of the chemical elements. An atom consists of a atomic nucleus, nucleus of protons and generally neutrons, surrounded by an electromagnetically bound swarm of electrons. The chemical elements are distinguished fr ...
ic to
molecular A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions that satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, ...
scale, dealing primarily with collections of atoms, such as
molecule A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are held together by Force, attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions that satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemi ...
s,
crystal A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macros ...
s, and
metal A metal () is a material that, when polished or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electrical resistivity and conductivity, electricity and thermal conductivity, heat relatively well. These properties are all associated wit ...
s. Thus, according to Budge and others, chemistry derives from an Egyptian word ''khemein'' or ''khēmia'', "preparation of black powder", ultimately derived from the name ''khem'', Egypt. A decree of
Diocletian Diocletian ( ; ; ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed Jovius, was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Diocles to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia. As with other Illyri ...
, written about 300 AD in Greek, speaks against "the ancient writings of the Egyptians, which treat of the ''khēmia'' transmutation of gold and silver".


Greek origin

Arabic ''al-kīmiyaʾ'' or ''al-khīmiyaʾ'' ( or ), according to some, is thought to derive from the Koine
Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
word ''khymeia'' () meaning "the art of alloying metals, alchemy"; in the manuscripts, this word is also written ''khēmeia'' () or ''kheimeia'' (), which is the probable basis of the Arabic form. According to Mahn, the Greek word χυμεία ''khumeia'' originally meant "cast together", "casting together", "weld", "alloy", etc. (cf. Gk. ''kheein'' () "to pour"; ''khuma'' (), "that which is poured out, an ingot"). Assuming a Greek origin, chemistry is defined as follows: :Chemistry, from the
Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
word (''khēmeia'') meaning "cast together" or "pour together", is the
science Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...
of
matter In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic pa ...
at the
atom Atoms are the basic particles of the chemical elements. An atom consists of a atomic nucleus, nucleus of protons and generally neutrons, surrounded by an electromagnetically bound swarm of electrons. The chemical elements are distinguished fr ...
ic to
molecular A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions that satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, ...
scale, dealing primarily with collections of atoms, such as
molecule A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are held together by Force, attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions that satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemi ...
s,
crystal A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macros ...
s, and
metal A metal () is a material that, when polished or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electrical resistivity and conductivity, electricity and thermal conductivity, heat relatively well. These properties are all associated wit ...
s.


From alchemy to chemistry

Later medieval Latin had ''alchimia / alchymia'' "alchemy", ''alchimicus'' "alchemical", and ''alchimista'' "alchemist". The mineralogist and humanist
Georg Agricola Georgius Agricola (; born Georg Bauer; 24 March 1494 – 21 November 1555) was a German Humanist scholar, mineralogist and metallurgist. Born in the small town of Glauchau, in the Electorate of Saxony of the Holy Roman Empire, he was broa ...
(died 1555) was the first to drop the Arabic definite article ''al-''. In his Latin works from 1530 on he exclusively wrote ''chymia'' and ''chymista'' in describing activity that we today would characterize as chemical or alchemical. As a humanist, Agricola was intent on purifying words and returning them to their classical roots. He had no intent to make a semantic distinction between ''chymia'' and ''alchymia''.Alan J. Rocke, "Agricola, Paracelsus, and Chymia," ''Ambix'' vol. 32 (1985), 38-45. During the later sixteenth century Agricola's new coinage slowly propagated. It seems to have been adopted in most of the vernacular European languages following
Conrad Gessner Conrad Gessner (; ; 26 March 1516 – 13 December 1565) was a Swiss physician, naturalist, bibliographer, and philologist. Born into a poor family in Zürich, Switzerland, his father and teachers quickly realised his talents and supported him t ...
's adoption of it in his extremely popular pseudonymous work, ''Thesaurus Euonymi Philiatri De remediis secretis: Liber physicus, medicus, et partim etiam chymicus'' (Zurich 1552). Gessner's work was frequently re-published in the second half of the 16th century in Latin and was also published in a number of vernacular European languages, with the word spelled without the ''al-''. In the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe the forms ''alchimia'' and ''chimia'' (and ''chymia'') were synonymous and interchangeable. The semantic distinction between a rational and practical science of ''chimia'' and an occult ''alchimia'' arose only in the early eighteenth century.William R. Newman and Lawrence M. Principe, "Alchemy vs. Chemistry: The Etymological Origins of a Historiographic Mistake," ''Early Science and Medicine'', vol. 3 (1998), 32-65. In 16th, 17th and early 18th century English the spellings — both with and without the ''"al"'' — were usually with an ''i'' or ''y'' as in ''chimic / chymic / alchimic / alchymic''. During the later 18th century the spelling was re-fashioned to use a letter ''e'', as in ''chemic'' in English. In English after the spelling shifted from ''chimical'' to ''chemical'', there was corresponding shift from ''alchimical'' to ''alchemical'', which occurred in the early 19th century."Chemic", "chemical" and "chemistry" in ''New English Dictionary on Historical Principles''
(year 1893). Als
"Alchemy" and "alchemist" in ''New English Dictionary on Historical Principles''
(year 1888).
In French, Italian, Spanish and Russian today it continues to be spelled with an i as in for example Italian ''chimica''.


See also

*
History of chemistry The history of chemistry represents a time span from ancient history to the present. By 1000 BC, civilizations used technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include the discovery of fire, ex ...
*
History of science The history of science covers the development of science from ancient history, ancient times to the present. It encompasses all three major branches of science: natural science, natural, social science, social, and formal science, formal. Pr ...
*
History of thermodynamics The history of thermodynamics is a fundamental strand in the history of physics, the history of chemistry, and the history of science in general. Due to the relevance of thermodynamics in much of science and technology, its history is finely wov ...
* List of Arabic loanwords in English *
List of chemical element name etymologies the etymology of chemical elements of the periodic table. History Throughout the history of chemistry, many chemical elements have been discovered. In the 19th century, Dmitri Mendeleev formulated the periodic table, a table of elements whic ...


References

{{reflist
Chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...
History of chemistry
Chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...