Characterization, when used in materials science, refers to the broad and general process by which a material's structure and properties are probed and measured. It is a fundamental process in the field of materials science, without which no scientific understanding of engineering materials could be ascertained. The scope of the term often differs; some definitions limit the term's use to techniques which study the microscopic structure and properties of materials, while others use the term to refer to any materials analysis process including macroscopic techniques such as mechanical testing, thermal analysis and density calculation. The scale of the structures observed in materials characterization ranges from angstroms, such as in the imaging of individual atoms and chemical bonds, up to centimeters, such as in the imaging of coarse grain structures in metals. While many characterization techniques have been practiced for centuries, such as basic optical microscopy, new techniques and methodologies are constantly emerging. In particular the advent of the electron microscope and secondary ion mass spectrometry in the 20th century has revolutionized the field, allowing the imaging and analysis of structures and compositions on much smaller scales than was previously possible, leading to a huge increase in the level of understanding as to why different materials show different properties and behaviors.Mathys, Daniel, Zentrum für Mikroskopie, University of Basel: ''Die Entwicklung der Elektronenmikroskopie vom Bild über die Analyse zum Nanolabor'', p. 8 More recently,

atomic force microscopy Atomic force microscopy (AFM) or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a very-high-resolution type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the op ...

has further increased the maximum possible resolution for analysis of certain samples in the last 30 years.

Microscopy

Microscopy Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). There are three well-known branches of micr ...

is a category of characterization techniques which probe and map the surface and sub-surface structure of a material. These techniques can use photons, electrons, ions or physical cantilever probes to gather data about a sample's structure on a range of length scales. Some common examples of microscopy techniques include: * Optical microscopy * Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) * Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) * Field ion microscopy (FIM) *

Scanning probe microscopy Scan may refer to: Acronyms * Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN), a psychiatric diagnostic tool developed by WHO * Shared Check Authorization Network (SCAN), a database of bad check writers and collection agency for bad ...

(SPM) **

Atomic force microscopy Atomic force microscopy (AFM) or scanning force microscopy (SFM) is a very-high-resolution type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the op ...

(AFM) ** Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) * X-ray diffraction topography (XRT)

Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy Spectroscopy is the field of study that measures and interprets the electromagnetic spectra that result from the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter as a function of the wavelength or frequency of the radiation. Matter wa ...

is a category of characterization techniques which use a range of principles to reveal the chemical composition, composition variation, crystal structure and photoelectric properties of materials. Some common examples of spectroscopy techniques include:

Optical radiation

* Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-vis) *

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to obtain an infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid, or gas. An FTIR spectrometer simultaneously collects high-resolution spectral data over a wide spectr ...

(FTIR) * Thermoluminescence (TL) *

Photoluminescence Photoluminescence (abbreviated as PL) is light emission from any form of matter after the absorption of photons (electromagnetic radiation). It is one of many forms of luminescence (light emission) and is initiated by photoexcitation (i.e. photon ...

(PL)

X-ray

X-ray diffraction X-ray crystallography is the experimental science determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles ...

(XRD) * Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) * Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX, EDS) * Wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDX, WDS) * Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) * X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) *

Auger electron spectroscopy file:HD.6C.037 (11856519893).jpg, A Hanford Site, Hanford scientist uses an Auger electron spectrometer to determine the elemental composition of surfaces. Auger electron spectroscopy (AES; pronounced in French) is a common analytical technique us ...

(AES) *

X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy (XPCS) in physics and chemistry, is a novel technique that exploits a coherent X-ray synchrotron beam to measure the dynamics of a sample. By recording how coherent speckle fluctuations in time, one can meas ...

(XPCS)

Mass spectrometry

*Modes of mass spectrometry: **

Electron ionization Electron ionization (EI, formerly known as electron impact ionization and electron bombardment ionization) is an ionization method in which energetic electrons interact with solid or gas phase atoms or molecules to produce ions. EI was one of th ...

(EI) ** Thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TI-MS) ** MALDI-TOF * Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS)

Nuclear spectroscopy

* Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) * Mössbauer spectroscopy (MBS) * Perturbed angular correlation (PAC)

Other

Photon correlation spectroscopy Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is a technique in physics that can be used to determine the size distribution profile of small particles in suspension or polymers in solution. In the scope of DLS, temporal fluctuations are usually analyzed using t ...

Dynamic light scattering Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is a technique in physics that can be used to determine the size distribution profile of small particles in suspension or polymers in solution. In the scope of DLS, temporal fluctuations are usually analyzed usin ...

(DLS) *

Terahertz spectroscopy Terahertz spectroscopy detects and controls properties of matter with electromagnetic fields that are in the frequency range between a few hundred gigahertz and several terahertz (abbreviated as THz). In many-body systems, several of the relevant ...

(THz) * Electron paramagnetic/spin resonance (EPR, ESR) * Small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) * Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS)

Macroscopic testing

A huge range of techniques are used to characterize various macroscopic properties of materials, including: * Mechanical testing, including tensile, compressive, torsional, creep, fatigue, toughness and hardness testing * Differential thermal analysis (DTA) *

Dielectric thermal analysis Dielectric thermal analysis (DETA), or dielectric analysis (DEA), is a materials science technique similar to dynamic mechanical analysis except that an oscillating electrical field is used instead of a mechanical force. For investigation of the c ...

(DEA, DETA) *

Thermogravimetric analysis Thermogravimetric analysis or thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) is a method of thermal analysis in which the mass of a sample is measured over time as the temperature changes. This measurement provides information about physical phenomena, such ...

(TGA) * Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) *

Impulse excitation technique The impulse excitation technique (IET) is a non-destructive material characterization technique to determine the elastic properties and internal friction of a material of interest. It measures the resonant frequencies in order to calculate the You ...

(IET) *

Ultrasound Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing. Ultrasound is not different from "normal" (audible) sound in its physical properties, except that humans cannot hear it. This limit varies fr ...

techniques, including

resonant ultrasound spectroscopy Resonant ultrasound spectroscopy (RUS) is a laboratory technique used in geology and material science to measure fundamental material properties involving elasticity. This technique relies on the fact that solid objects have natural frequencies at ...

and time domain

ultrasonic testing Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques based on the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested. In most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies ...

methodsR. Truell, C. Elbaum and C.B. Chick., Ultrasonic methods in solid state physics New York, Academic Press Inc., 1969.

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Characterization (Materials Science) Materials science