centillion

Depending on context (e.g. language, culture, region), some large numbers have names that allow for describing large quantities in a textual form; not mathematical. For very large values, the text is generally shorter than a decimal numeric representation although longer than scientific notation.

Two naming scales for large numbers have been used in English and other European languages since the early modern era: the long and short scales. Most English variants use the short scale today, but the long scale remains dominant in many non-English-speaking areas, including continental Europe and Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America. These naming procedures are based on taking the number ''n'' occurring in 10^3''n''+3 (short scale) or 10^6''n'' (long scale) and concatenating Latin roots for its units, tens, and hundreds place, together with the suffix ''-illion''.

Names of numbers above a trillion are rarely used in practice; such large numbers have practical usage primarily in the scientific domain, where powers of ten are expressed as ''10'' with a numeric superscript. However, these somewhat rare names are considered acceptable for approximate statements. For example, the statement "There are approximately 7.1 octillion atoms in an adult human body" is understood to be in short scale of the table below (and is only accurate if referring to short scale rather than long scale).

The Indian numbering system uses the named numbers common between the long and short scales up to ten thousand. For larger values, it includes named numbers at each multiple of 100; including lakh (10⁵) and crore (10⁷).

English also has words, such as ''zillion'', that are used informally to mean large but unspecified amounts.

Standard dictionary numbers

Usage:
* Short scale: US, English Canada, modern British, Australia, and Eastern Europe
* Long scale: French Canada, older British, Western & Central Europe

Apart from ''million'', the words in this list ending with -''illion'' are all derived by adding prefixes (''bi''-, ''tri''-, etc., derived from Latin) to the stem -''illion''. ''Centillion'' appears to be the highest name ending in -"illion" that is included in these dictionaries. ''Trigintillion'', often cited as a word in discussions of names of large numbers, is not included in any of them, nor are any of the names that can easily be created by extending the naming pattern (''unvigintillion'', ''duovigintillion'', ''duoquinquagintillion'', etc.).

All of the dictionaries included ''googol'' and ''googolplex'', generally crediting it to the Kasner and Newman book and to Kasner's nephew (see below). None include any higher names in the googol family (googolduplex, etc.). The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' comments that ''googol'' and ''googolplex'' are "not in formal mathematical use".

Usage of names of large numbers

Some names of large numbers, such as ''million'', ''billion'', and ''trillion'', have real referents in human experience, and are encountered in many contexts, particularly in finance and economics. At times, the names of large numbers have been forced into common usage as a result of hyperinflation. The highest numerical value banknote ever printed was a note for 1 sextillion pengő (10²¹ or 1 milliard bilpengő as printed) printed in Hungary in 1946. In 2009, Zimbabwe printed a 100 trillion (10¹⁴) Zimbabwean dollar note, which at the time of printing was worth about US$30. In global economics, the name of a significantly larger number was used in 2024, when the Russian news outlet RBK stated that the sum of legal claims against Google in Russia totalled 2 undecillion (2) rubles, or US $20 decillion (US $2); a value worth more than all financial assets in the world combined. A Kremlin spokesperson, Dmitry Peskov. In this notation, powers of ten are expressed as ''10'' with a numeric superscript, e.g. "The X-ray emission of the radio galaxy is ." When a number such as 10⁴⁵ needs to be referred to in words, it is simply read out as "ten to the forty-fifth" or "ten to the forty-five". This is easier to say and less ambiguous than "quattuordecillion", which means something different in the long scale and the short scale.

When a number represents a quantity rather than a count, SI prefixes can be used—thus "femtosecond", not "one quadrillionth of a second"—although often powers of ten are used instead of some of the very high and very low prefixes. In some cases, specialized units are used, such as the astronomer's parsec and light year or the particle physicist's barn.

Nevertheless, large numbers have an intellectual fascination and are of mathematical interest, and giving them names is one way people try to conceptualize and understand them.

One of the earliest examples of this is ''The Sand Reckoner'', in which Archimedes gave a system for naming large numbers. To do this, he called the numbers up to a myriad myriad (10⁸) "first numbers" and called 10⁸ itself the "unit of the second numbers". Multiples of this unit then became the second numbers, up to this unit taken a myriad myriad times, 10⁸·10⁸=10¹⁶. This became the "unit of the third numbers", whose multiples were the third numbers, and so on. Archimedes continued naming numbers in this way up to a myriad myriad times the unit of the 10⁸-th numbers, i.e. $(10^8)^=10^,$ and embedded this construction within another copy of itself to produce names for numbers up to $((10^8)^)^=10^.$ Archimedes then estimated the number of grains of sand that would be required to fill the known universe, and found that it was no more than "one thousand myriad of the eighth numbers" (10⁶³).

Since then, many others have engaged in the pursuit of conceptualizing and naming numbers that have no existence outside the imagination. One motivation for such a pursuit is that attributed to the inventor of the word ''googol'', who was certain that any finite number "had to have a name". Another possible motivation is competition between students in computer programming courses, where a common exercise is that of writing a program to output numbers in the form of English words.

Most names proposed for large numbers belong to systematic schemes which are extensible. Thus, many names for large numbers are simply the result of following a naming system to its logical conclusion—or extending it further.

Origins of the "standard dictionary numbers"

The words ''bymillion'' and ''trimillion'' were first recorded in 1475 in a manuscript of Jehan Adam. Subsequently, Nicolas Chuquet wrote a book ''Triparty en la science des nombres'' which was not published during Chuquet's lifetime. However, most of it was copied by Estienne de La Roche for a portion of his 1520 book, '' L'arismetique''. Chuquet's book contains a passage in which he shows a large number marked off into groups of six digits, with the comment:

Ou qui veult le premier point peult signiffier million Le second point byllion Le tiers point tryllion Le quart quadrillion Le cinq^e quyllion Le six^e sixlion Le sept.^e septyllion Le huyt^e ottyllion Le neuf^e nonyllion et ainsi des ault'^s se plus oultre on vouloit preceder

(Or if you prefer the first mark can signify million, the second mark byllion, the third mark tryllion, the fourth quadrillion, the fifth quyillion, the sixth sixlion, the seventh septyllion, the eighth ottyllion, the ninth nonyllion and so on with others as far as you wish to go).

Adam and Chuquet used the long scale of powers of a million; that is, Adam's ''bymillion'' (Chuquet's ''byllion'') denoted 10¹², and Adam's ''trimillion'' (Chuquet's ''tryllion'') denoted 10¹⁸.

The googol family

The names ''googol'' and ''googolplex'' were invented by Edward Kasner's nephew Milton Sirotta and introduced in Kasner and Newman's 1940 book ''Mathematics and the Imagination'' in the following passage:

John Horton Conway and Richard K. Guy have suggested that ''N-plex'' be used as a name for 10^N. This gives rise to the name ''googolplexplex'' for 10^googolplex = 10. Conway and Guy have proposed that ''N-minex'' be used as a name for 10^−N, giving rise to the name ''googolminex'' for the reciprocal of a googolplex, which is written as 10. None of these names are in wide use.

The names ''googol'' and ''googolplex'' inspired the name of the Internet company Google and its corporate headquarters, the Googleplex, respectively.

Extensions of the standard dictionary numbers

This section illustrates several systems for naming large numbers, and shows how they can be extended past ''vigintillion''.

Traditional British usage assigned new names for each power of one million (the long scale): ; ; ; and so on. It was adapted from French usage, and is similar to the system that was documented or invented by Chuquet.

Traditional American usage (which was also adapted from French usage but at a later date), Canadian, and modern British usage assign new names for each power of one thousand (the short scale). Thus, a ''billion'' is 1000 × 1000² = 10⁹; a ''trillion'' is 1000 × 1000³ = 10¹²; and so forth. Due to its dominance in the financial world (and by the US dollar), this was adopted for official United Nations documents.

Traditional French usage has varied; in 1948, France, which had originally popularized the short scale worldwide, reverted to the long scale.

The term ''milliard'' is unambiguous and always means 10⁹. It is seldom seen in American usage and rarely in British usage, but frequently in continental European usage. The term is sometimes attributed to French mathematician Jacques Peletier du Mans (for this reason, the long scale is also known as the ''Chuquet-Peletier'' system), but the Oxford English Dictionary states that the term derives from post-Classical Latin term ''milliartum'', which became ''milliare'' and then ''milliart'' and finally our modern term.

Concerning names ending in -illiard for numbers 10^6''n''+3, ''milliard'' is certainly in widespread use in languages other than English, but the degree of actual use of the larger terms is questionable. The terms "milliardo" in Italian, "Milliarde" in German, "miljard" in Dutch, "milyar" in Turkish, and "миллиард," milliard (transliterated) in Russian, are standard usage when discussing financial topics.

The naming procedure for large numbers is based on taking the number ''n'' occurring in 10^3''n''+3 (short scale) or 10^6''n'' (long scale) and concatenating Latin roots for its units, tens, and hundreds place, together with the suffix ''-illion''. In this way, numbers up to 10^3·999+3 = 10³⁰⁰⁰ (short scale) or 10^6·999 = 10⁵⁹⁹⁴ (long scale) may be named. The choice of roots and the concatenation procedure is that of the standard dictionary numbers if ''n'' is 9 or smaller. For larger ''n'' (between 10 and 999), prefixes can be constructed based on a system described by Conway and Guy. Today, sexdecillion and novemdecillion are standard dictionary numbers and, using the same reasoning as Conway and Guy did for the numbers up to nonillion, could probably be used to form acceptable prefixes. The Conway–Guy system for forming prefixes:

Since the system of using Latin prefixes will become ambiguous for numbers with exponents of a size which the Romans rarely counted to, like 10^6,000,258, Conway and Guy co-devised with Allan Wechsler the following set of consistent conventions that permit, in principle, the extension of this system indefinitely to provide English short-scale names for any integer whatsoever. The name of a number 10^3''n''+3, where ''n'' is greater than or equal to 1000, is formed by concatenating the names of the numbers of the form 10^3''m''+3, where ''m'' represents each group of comma-separated digits of ''n'', with each but the last "-illion" trimmed to "-illi-", or, in the case of ''m'' = 0, either "-nilli-" or "-nillion". For example, 10^3,000,012, the 1,000,003rd "-illion" number, equals one "millinillitrillion"; 10^{33,002,010,111}, the 11,000,670,036th "-illion" number, equals one "undecillinilliseptuagintasescentillisestrigintillion"; and 10^{29,629,629,633}, the 9,876,543,210th "-illion" number, equals one "nonilliseseptuagintaoctingentillitresquadragintaquingentillideciducentillion".

The following table shows number names generated by the system described by Conway and Guy for the short and long scales.

Binary prefixes

The International System of Quantities (ISQ) defines a series of prefixes denoting integer powers of 1024 between 1024¹ and 1024⁸.

Other named large numbers used in mathematics, physics and chemistry

* Avogadro number
* Graham's number
* Skewes's number
* Steinhaus–Moser notation
* TREE(3)
* Rayo's number
* SSCG(3)

See also

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References

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Numeral systems
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