Pearl millet (''Cenchrus americanus'', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum glaucum'') is the most widely grown type of

millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe Paniceae. Millets are important crops in the Semi-arid climate, ...

. It has been grown in

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surfac ...

and the

Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...

since prehistoric times. The center of diversity, and suggested area of

domestication Domestication is a multi-generational Mutualism (biology), mutualistic relationship in which an animal species, such as humans or leafcutter ants, takes over control and care of another species, such as sheep or fungi, to obtain from them a st ...

, for the crop is in the

Sahel The Sahel region (; ), or Sahelian acacia savanna, is a Biogeography, biogeographical region in Africa. It is the Ecotone, transition zone between the more humid Sudanian savannas to its south and the drier Sahara to the north. The Sahel has a ...

zone of

West Africa West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa, United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Gha ...

. Recent archaeobotanical research has confirmed the presence of domesticated pearl millet on the Sahel zone of northern

Mali Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is the List of African countries by area, eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of over . The country is bordered to the north by Algeria, to the east b ...

between 2500 and 2000 BC. 2023 was the , declared by the

United Nations General Assembly The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA or GA; , AGNU or AG) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN), serving as its main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ. Currently in its Seventy-ninth session of th ...

in 2021.

Description

Pearl millet has

ovoid An oval () is a closed curve in a plane which resembles the outline of an egg. The term is not very specific, but in some areas of mathematics (projective geometry, technical drawing, etc.), it is given a more precise definition, which may inc ...

grains of length, the largest kernels of all varieties of millet (not including

sorghum ''Sorghum bicolor'', commonly called sorghum () and also known as great millet, broomcorn, guinea corn, durra, imphee, jowar, or milo, is a species in the Poaceae, grass genus ''Sorghum (genus), Sorghum'' cultivated for its grain. The grain i ...

). These can be nearly white, pale yellow, brown, grey, slate blue or purple. The 1000-seed weight can be anything from 2.5 to 14 g with a mean of 8 g. The height of the plant ranges from .

Cultivation

Pearl millet is well adapted to growing areas characterized by

drought A drought is a period of drier-than-normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, ...

, low soil fertility, low moisture, and high temperature. It performs well in soils with high salinity or low pH. Because of its tolerance to difficult growing conditions, it can be grown in areas where other

cereal A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize ( Corn). Edible grains from other plant families, ...

crops, such as

maize Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago from wild teosinte. Native American ...

wheat Wheat is a group of wild and crop domestication, domesticated Poaceae, grasses of the genus ''Triticum'' (). They are Agriculture, cultivated for their cereal grains, which are staple foods around the world. Well-known Taxonomy of wheat, whe ...

, would not survive. Pearl millet is a summer annual crop well-suited for double cropping and rotations. The grain and forage are valuable as food and feed resources in Africa, Russia, India and China. Today, pearl millet is grown on over of land worldwide. It accounts for about 50% of the total world production of millets. World production of millets has been stable during the 1980s. According to FAO, of millet were planted in 1987 with an average production of only .

Structure and physical properties

Pearl millet varieties from the world collection probably have more variation in physical characteristics than any other millet. Kernel shape has different classifications: obovate, hexagonal,

lanceolate The following terms are used to describe leaf plant morphology, morphology in the description and taxonomy (biology), taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple (that is, the leaf blade or 'lamina' is undivided) or compound (that is, the leaf blade ...

, globular and elliptical. In Africa, pearl millet is classified as either globular or lanceolate and hexagonal. Most of the millets are very similar to each other in basic structures, although there are some very specific differences.

Composition

The composition of variety ''Changara'' of pearl millet can be affected by both environment and genetics. Pearl millet usually has higher protein and fat contents than sorghum or other millets because the kernel is a naked

caryopsis In botany, a caryopsis () is a type of simple fruit—one that is monocarpellate (formed from a single carpel) and indehiscent (not opening at maturity) and resembles an achene, except that in a caryopsis the pericarp is fused with the thin s ...

. Values are expressed on a dry matter basis.

Culinary use

Pearl millet is commonly used to make ''

bhakri Bhakri () is a round flatbread often eaten in the cuisines of the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Karnataka in India. Bhakri is prepared using jowar or bajra, which is coarser than a regular wheat chapati. Bhakri can be either sof ...

'' flatbread. It is also boiled to make a

Tamil Tamil may refer to: People, culture and language * Tamils, an ethno-linguistic group native to India, Sri Lanka, and some other parts of Asia **Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka ** Myanmar or Burmese Tamils, Tamil people of Ind ...

porridge called ''kamban choru'' or ''kamban koozh''. In

Rajasthani cuisine . Rajwaadi culinary tradition Rajasthan is known for its Royal ''Rajwaadi cuisine'' (also known as ''Raajsi cuisine'') which emanated from the culinary traditions of Royal courts and temples. The ''Rajwaadi cuisine'' is characteri ...

is a traditional dish made with pearl millet flour and

yogurt Yogurt (; , from , ; also spelled yoghurt, yogourt or yoghourt) is a food produced by bacterial Fermentation (food), fermentation of milk. Fermentation of sugars in the milk by these bacteria produces lactic acid, which acts on milk protein to ...

Flatbread A flatbread is bread made usually with flour; water, milk, yogurt, or other liquid; and salt, and then thoroughly rolled into flattened dough. Many flatbreads are Unleavened bread, unleavened, although some are leavened, such as pita bread. A Se ...

s made of pearl millet flour are served with various types of

kadhi Kadhi or karhi is a yogurt-based dish originating from Rajasthan, India. It is made by simmering yogurt with besan (gram flour) and spices until it forms a thick, tangy gravy. It is sometimes mixed with pakoras (deep-fried fritters). It is ...

and bhaaji in meals. In Namibia, pearl millet flour is used to make oshifima, a staple food in the northern part of Namibia.

Around the world

India

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

is the largest producer of pearl millet. India began growing pearl millet between 1500 and 1100 BCE. It is currently unknown how it made its way to India, but it likely arrived originally from across Africa, and via the Red Sea during Indus Valley Trade networks. Rajasthan is the highest-producing state in India. The first hybrid of pearl millet developed in India in 1965 is called the HB1. Sajje is the local name of the pearl millet in

Karnataka Karnataka ( ) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed as Mysore State on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, States Re ...

and is mostly grown in the semiarid districts of North Karnataka. Sajje is milled and used for making flatbread called ' sajje rotti' and is eaten with yennegai (stuffed

brinjal Eggplant ( US, CA, AU, PH), aubergine ( UK, IE, NZ), brinjal ( IN, SG, MY, ZA, SLE), or baigan ( IN, GY) is a plant species in the nightshade family Solanaceae. ''Solanum melongena'' is grown worldwide for its edible fruit, typic ...

) and

. ''Kambu'' is the Tamil name of pearl millet and is a common food across the

Indian state India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories, for a total of 36 subnational entities. The states and union territories are further subdivided into 800 districts and smaller administrative divisions by the respe ...

of Tamil Nadu. It is the second important food for Tamil people consumed predominantly in the hot humid summer months from February through May every year. It is made into a

gruel Gruel is a food consisting of some type of cereal—such as ground oats, wheat, rye, or rice—heated or boiled in water or milk. It is a thinner version of porridge that may be more often drunk rather than eaten. Historically, gruel has been a ...

and consumed along with

buttermilk Buttermilk is a fermented dairy drink. Traditionally, it was the liquid left behind after churning butter out of cultured cream. As most modern butter in Western countries is not made with cultured cream but uncultured sweet cream, most mode ...

or consumed as

dosa Dosa may refer to: Belief * Dosa or dvesha, a Buddhist concept of hate or aversion People * Bogoljub Mitić Đoša (1968 - 2017), Serbian actor * Csaba Dosa (born 1951), Romanian athlete * Dosa ben Harkinas, Jewish Tanna sage * Dosa ben S ...

idly Idli, iddena, iddali or idly (; plural: idlis) is a type of savoury rice cake, originating from South India, popular as a breakfast food in Southern India and in Sri Lanka. The cakes are made by steaming a batter consisting of fermented de-h ...

. Pearl millet is called ''bajra'' in

Northern India North India is a geographical region, loosely defined as a cultural region comprising the northern part of India (or historically, the Indian subcontinent) wherein Indo-Aryans (speaking Indo-Aryan languages) form the prominent majority populati ...

n states. There was a time when pearl millets along with

finger millet Finger millet (''Eleusine coracana'') is an Annual plant, annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and Semi-arid climate, semiarid areas in Africa and Asia. It is a tetraploid and Self-pollination, self-pollinating speci ...

s and

were the staple food crops in these states but it reduced to a mere cattle fodder crop after the

Green Revolution The Green Revolution, or the Third Agricultural Revolution, was a period during which technology transfer initiatives resulted in a significant increase in crop yields. These changes in agriculture initially emerged in Developed country , devel ...

in the 1960s.

Africa

The second largest producer of pearl millet and the first to start cultivation, Africa has been successful in bringing back this lost crop.

Sahel

Pearl millet is an important food across the

region of Africa. It is a main staple (along with

) in a large region of northern

Nigeria Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It covers an area of . With Demographics of Nigeria, ...

Niger Niger, officially the Republic of the Niger, is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is a unitary state Geography of Niger#Political geography, bordered by Libya to the Libya–Niger border, north-east, Chad to the Chad–Niger border, east ...

and

Burkina Faso Burkina Faso is a landlocked country in West Africa, bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the south, and Ivory Coast to the southwest. It covers an area of 274,223 km2 (105,87 ...

. In Nigeria it is usually grown as an

intercrop Intercropping is a multiple cropping practice that involves the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field, a form of polyculture. The most common goal of intercropping is to produce a greater yield on a given piece of land ...

with sorghum and

cowpea The cowpea (''Vigna unguiculata'') is an annual herbaceous legume from the genus '' Vigna''. Its tolerance for sandy soil and low rainfall have made it an important crop in the semiarid regions across Africa and Asia. It requires very few inpu ...

, the different growth habits, growth period and drought vulnerability of the three crops maximising total productivity and minimising the risk of total crop failure. It is often ground into a flour, rolled into large balls, parboiled, liquefied into a watery paste using fermented milk, and then consumed as a beverage. This beverage, called "fura" in Hausa, is a popular drink in northern Nigeria and southern Niger. Pearl millet is a food widely used in

Borno state Borno is a States of Nigeria, state in the North East (Nigeria), North-East geopolitical zone of Nigeria. It is bordered by Yobe State, Yobe to the west, Gombe State, Gombe to the southwest, and Adamawa State, Adamawa to the south while its ea ...

and its surrounding states, it is the most widely grown and harvested crop. There are many products that are obtained from the processing of the crop.

Namibia

Namibia Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country on the west coast of Southern Africa. Its borders include the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south; in the no ...

, pearl millet is locally known as "mahangu" and is grown mainly in the north of that country, where it is the

staple food A staple food, food staple, or simply staple, is a food that is eaten often and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet for an individual or a population group, supplying a large fraction of energy needs an ...

. In the dry, unpredictable climate of this area it grows better than alternatives such as

. The regions in which this crop is produced are: Zambezi, Kavango East, Kavango West, Ohangwena, Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto, and; in parts of the Otjozondjupa region, in the Tsumkwe area. Mahangu is usually made into a

porridge Porridge is a food made by heating, soaking or boiling ground, crushed or chopped starchy plants, typically grain, in milk or water. It is often cooked or served with added flavourings such as sugar, honey, fruit, or syrup to make a sweet cereal ...

called "oshifima" (or "oshithima"), or

ferment Fermentation is a type of anaerobic metabolism which harnesses the redox potential of the reactants to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and organic end products. Organic compound, Organic molecules, such as glucose or other sugars, are Catabo ...

ed to make a drink called "ontaku" or "oshikundu". Traditionally, the mahangu is pounded with heavy pieces of wood in a 'pounding area'. The floor of the pounding area is covered with a concrete-like coating made from the material of

termite Termites are a group of detritivore, detritophagous Eusociality, eusocial cockroaches which consume a variety of Detritus, decaying plant material, generally in the form of wood, Plant litter, leaf litter, and Humus, soil humus. They are dist ...

mounds. As a result, some sand and grit gets into the pounded mahangu, so products like oshifima are usually swallowed without chewing. After pounding,

winnowing Winnowing is a process by which chaff is separated from grain. It can also be used to remove pests from stored grain. Winnowing usually follows threshing in grain preparation. In its simplest form, it involves throwing the mixture into the ...

may be used to remove the

chaff Chaff (; ) is dry, scale-like plant material such as the protective seed casings of cereal grains, the scale-like parts of flowers, or finely chopped straw. Chaff cannot be digested by humans, but it may be fed to livestock, ploughed into soil ...

. Some industrial grain processing facilities now exist, such as those operated by Namib Mills. Efforts are also being made to develop smaller scale processing using

food extrusion Extrusion in food processing consists of forcing soft mixed ingredients through an opening in a perforated plate or die designed to produce the required shape. The extruded food is then cut to a specific size by blades. The machine which forces ...

and other methods. In a food extruder, the mahangu is milled into a paste before being forced through metal die. Products made this way include breakfast cereals, including

puffed grain Puffed grains are grains that have been expanded ("puffed") through processing. They have been made for centuries with the simplest methods like popping popcorn. Modern puffed grains are often created using high temperature, pressure, or extrus ...

s and

, pasta shapes, and "rice". Pearl millet is also a vital feedstock for cattle, goats and chickens which can also be explored as an enterprise.

Research and development

Recently more productive varieties of pearl millet have been introduced, enabling farmers to increase production considerably. To combat the problem of micronutrient malnutrition in Africa and Asia, a study of serving iron- biofortified pearl millets which is bred conventionally without

genetic modification Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's genes using technology. It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including th ...

to a control group is proved to have higher level of iron absorbance by the group. Around 1000 pearl millet genotypes (including 31 wild genotypes) have been sequenced, identifying the genetic diversity of this staple crop and aiding breeding to select for particular characteristics. A reference genotype of pearl millet () has been fully sequenced, which holds around 38,579 genes. Some of these genes are for wax

biosynthesis Biosynthesis, i.e., chemical synthesis occurring in biological contexts, is a term most often referring to multi-step, enzyme-Catalysis, catalyzed processes where chemical substances absorbed as nutrients (or previously converted through biosynthe ...

, which is known to be involved in tolerance to abiotic stresses in pearl millet. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics is evaluating crop wild relatives and will introgress abiotic tolerant traits into cultivated genotypes and make them available for pearl millet improvement. A 2015 study provided a

genetic map Genetic linkage is the tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together during the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction. Two genetic markers that are physically near to each other are unlikely to be separ ...

Pests

Insect pests include ''

Anoecia corni ''Anoecia'' is a genus of Aphidoidea, aphids typical of the subfamily Anoeciinae. Species Species of this genus are mostly found in Eurasia and North America. * ''Anoecia caricis'' Mordvilko, 1931 * ''Anoecia corni'' (Fabricius, 1775) * ''Anoeci ...

'', '' An. cornicola'', ''Anoecia fulviabdominalis'', '' An. vagans'', ''

Aphis gossypii ''Aphis gossypii'' is a tiny insect, an aphid Aphids are small sap-sucking insects in the Taxonomic rank, family Aphididae. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The grou ...

'', '' Forda hirsuta'', '' F. orientalis'', '' Geoica utricularia'', '' Hysteroneura setariae'', ''

Melanaphis sacchari The sugarcane aphid, (''Melanaphis sacchari''), is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants. It is mostly found in '' Saccharum'' and ''Sorghum'' species. The species primarily re ...

'', '' Protaphis middletonii'', ''

Rhopalosiphum maidis ''Rhopalosiphum maidis'', common names corn leaf aphid and corn aphid, is an insect, and a pest of maize and other crops. It has a nearly worldwide distribution and is typically found in agricultural fields, grasslands, and forest-grassland zone ...

'', '' R. rufiabdominale'', '' Schizaphis graminum'', '' Sipha elegans'', '' Sipha maydis'', '' Sitobion avenae'', '' Sit. leelamaniae'', '' Sit. pauliani'', ''Tetraneura africana'', ''Tetraneura basui'', ''Tetraneura fusiformis'', and '' T. yezoensis''.

Africa

The larvae of several insect species, primarily belonging to the orders

Coleoptera Beetles are insects that form the Taxonomic rank, order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Holometabola. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 40 ...

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) or lepidopterans is an order (biology), order of winged insects which includes butterflies and moths. About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera have been described, representing 10% of the total described species of living organ ...

Diptera Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advance ...

, and

Hemiptera Hemiptera (; ) is an order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising more than 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, assassin bugs, bed bugs, and shield bugs. They range in size from ...

, as well as

Orthoptera Orthoptera () is an order of insects that comprises the grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets, including closely related insects, such as the bush crickets or katydids and wētā. The order is subdivided into two suborders: Caelifera – gras ...

adults, are persistent pearl millet pests in the

. The following pest species are reported for northern Mali. *''

Coniesta ignefusalis ''Coniesta ignefusalis'', the pearl millet stem-borer, is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by George Hampson in 1919. Distribution ''Coniesta ignefusalis'' is found throughout the West African Sahel, including in Senegal, Mali, B ...

'' (pearl millet stem-borer; Lepidoptera,

Crambidae Crambidae comprises the grass moth family of lepidopterans. They are variable in appearance, with the nominal subfamily Crambinae (grass moths) taking up closely folded postures on grass stems where they are inconspicuous, while other subfamilies ...

) attacks pearl millet, and also sorghum and maize, especially in the Sahel. It is the main pearl millet pest in

Senegal Senegal, officially the Republic of Senegal, is the westernmost country in West Africa, situated on the Atlantic Ocean coastline. It borders Mauritania to Mauritania–Senegal border, the north, Mali to Mali–Senegal border, the east, Guinea t ...

. *'' Heliocheilus albipunctella'' (pearl millet head-miner; Lepidoptera,

Noctuidae The Noctuidae, commonly known as owlet moths, cutworms or armyworms, are a family (biology), family of moths. Taxonomically, they are considered the most controversial family in the superfamily Noctuoidea because many of the clades are constantly ...

) attacks pearl millet. The larvae bore in a spiral path, destroying florets or grain. *'' Geromyia penniseti'' (millet grain midge): The larvae eat the developing grain and form white pupal cases attached to the tips of spikelets. Reported losses in Senegal are as high as 90 percent. *'' Pachnoda interrupta'' (millet beetle) *'' Psalydolytta fusca'' and '' Ps. vestita'' (pearl millet blister beetle; Coleoptera,

Meloidae Blister beetles are beetles of the family Meloidae, so called for their defensive secretion of a blistering agent, cantharidin. About 7,500 species are known worldwide. Many are conspicuous and some are aposematically colored, announcing their ...

) attack pearl millet. They are major millet pests in Mali. *'' Rhinyptia infuscata'' (Scarabaeidae, Rutelinae,

Anomalini Anomalini is a tribe of shining leaf chafers in the family Scarabaeidae. There are about 1300 described species in Anomalini worldwide, including 60 in North America. Selected genera * ''Anomala'' Samouelle, 1819 * ''Anomalacra'' Casey, 1915 * ...

) is a nocturnal beetle, recorded as a locally important pest on millet flowers in

. Farmers in Niger often fight the species using fires set at night. It is also reported as sorghum pest in

, and as a pest on maize, where the larvae attack the roots. *'' Sesamia calamistis'' (pink stem borer), especially in lowland forests. This species and the sugarcane borer ('' Eldana saccharina'') are the primary pests of the pearl millet in

Ivory Coast Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire and officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital city of Yamoussoukro is located in the centre of the country, while its largest List of ci ...

. *

gall midge Cecidomyiidae is a family of diptera, flies known as gall midges or gall gnats. As the name implies, the larvae of most gall midges feed within plant tissue, creating abnormal plant growths called galls. Cecidomyiidae are very fragile small in ...

s (Diptera,

Cecidomyiidae Cecidomyiidae is a family of diptera, flies known as gall midges or gall gnats. As the name implies, the larvae of most gall midges feed within plant tissue, creating abnormal plant growths called galls. Cecidomyiidae are very fragile small in ...

): millet grain midge ('' Geromyia penniseti''), sorghum midge ('' Contarinia sorghicola''), and African rice gall midge ('' Orseolia oryzivora''). *''Dysdercus volkeri'' (cotton-stainer; Hemiptera,

Pyrrhocoridae Pyrrhocoridae is a family of insects with more than 300 species world-wide. Many are red coloured and are known as red bugs and some species are called cotton stainers because their feeding activities leave an indelible yellow-brownish stain on c ...

) attacks flowers. Grasshoppers that frequently attack millets in the Dogon country of Mali are '' Oedaleus senegalensis'', '' Kraussaria angulifera'', '' Cataloipus cymbiferus'', and '' Diabolocatantops axillaris''. In northern Ghana, '' Poophilus costalis'' (spittle bug) is reported as a millet pest, as well as ''Dysdercus volkeri'', '' Heliocheilus albipunctella'', ''

'', and caterpillars of '' Amsacta moloneyi'' and ''

Helicoverpa armigera ''Helicoverpa armigera'' is a species of Lepidoptera in the family Noctuidae. It is known as the cotton bollworm, corn earworm, Old World (African) bollworm, or scarce bordered straw (the lattermost in the UK, where it is a migrant). The larvae ...

''. In northern Nigeria, heavy infestations of ''

Hycleus ''Hycleus'' is a genus of blister beetle belonging to the Meloidae family found in Africa and Asia. The genus contains over 400 species, which historically have been confused with the genus '' Mylabris''. Ecology Adults feed mainly on flowers f ...

'' species, including ''Hycleus terminatus'' (syn. ''Mylabris afzelli''), ''Hycleus fimbriatus'' (syn. ''Mylabris fimbriatus''), ''Hycleus hermanniae'' (syn. ''Coryna hermanniae''), and ''Hycleus chevrolati'' (syn. ''Coryna chevrolati''), have affected early plantings of pearl millet crops.

Other regions

In South India, pests include the shoot fly ''

Atherigona approximata ''Atherigona approximata'', the pearl millet shoot fly, is a species of fly in the family Muscidae. The larvae feed on the central growing shoots of crops such as pearl millet and sorghum ''Sorghum bicolor'', commonly called sorghum () an ...

''. In North America, regular pests include the chinch bug ''

Blissus leucopterus ''Blissus leucopterus'', also known as the true chinch bug, is a small North American insect in the order Hemiptera and family Blissidae. It is the most commonly encountered species of the genus '' Blissus'', which are all known as chinch bugs. ...

''.

Gallery

File:Checking pearl millet crop.jpg, alt=Agronomist, Zimbabwe checks the crop,

Agronomist An agriculturist, agriculturalist, agrologist, or agronomist (abbreviated as agr.) is a professional in the science, practice, and management of agriculture and agribusiness. It is a regulated profession in Canada, India, the Philippines, the Uni ...

Zimbabwe file:Zimbabwe, relief map.jpg, upright=1.22, Zimbabwe, relief map Zimbabwe, officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Bots ...

File:Mahangu poundin.jpg, Mahangu pounding in

File:Mahangu pounding.jpg, Mahangu pounding in

File:Making dough from flour (10692692875).jpg,

Flour mill A gristmill (also: grist mill, corn mill, flour mill, feed mill or feedmill) grinds cereal grain into flour and middlings. The term can refer to either the grinding mechanism or the building that holds it. Grist is grain that has been separat ...

Tanzania Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to t ...

Description

Cultivation

Structure and physical properties

Composition

Culinary use

Around the world

India

Africa

Sahel

Namibia

Research and development

Pests

Africa

Other regions

Gallery

References

Further reading