''Castilleja levisecta'' is a rare species of flowering plant in the family

Orobanchaceae Orobanchaceae, the broomrapes, is a family (biology), family of mostly parasitic plants of the order (biology), order Lamiales, with about 90 genus, genera and more than 2000 species. Many of these genera (e.g., ''Pedicularis'', ''Rhinanthus'', ...

known by the common name golden paintbrush, or golden Indian paintbrush, listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1997. It is native to

British Columbia British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...

and Washington, where it is known from eleven remaining populations.USFWS
''Castilleja levisecta'' Five-year Review.
September 27, 2007. It occurred in

Oregon Oregon ( , ) is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is a part of the Western U.S., with the Columbia River delineating much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while t ...

but all natural occurrences there have been

extirpated Local extinction, also extirpation, is the termination of a species (or other taxon) in a chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions are contrasted with global extinctions. Local extinctions mark a chan ...

.Center for Plant Conservation
It has been reintroduced to a few areas in Oregon, but it remains to be seen if the plants will survive.The Nature Conservancy
/ref> The plant is a federally listed

endangered species An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, inv ...

of Canada and was listed as threatened in the United States in 1997.COSEWIC
''Castilleja levisecta'' Species Assessment.
November 2007.USFWS
Determination of threatened status for ''Castilleja levisecta'' (Golden Paintbrush).
''Federal Register'' June 11, 1997. On June 30, 2021, the plant was proposed for delisting due to recovery. Effective August 18, 2023, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service issued a rule removing golden paintbrush from the Federal List of Endangered and Threatened Plants

Description

''Castilleja levisecta'' (golden paintbrush) was first collected as a modern botanical specimen near Mill Plain, Washington, by Thomas Jefferson Howell in 1880 and was described by Jesse More Greenman in 1898 (Greenman 1898). This is a perennial herb growing in clumps of up to fifteen stems. The leaves are green, containing

chlorophyll Chlorophyll is any of several related green pigments found in cyanobacteria and in the chloroplasts of algae and plants. Its name is derived from the Greek words (, "pale green") and (, "leaf"). Chlorophyll allows plants to absorb energy ...

to undergo

photosynthesis Photosynthesis ( ) is a system of biological processes by which photosynthetic organisms, such as most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, convert light energy, typically from sunlight, into the chemical energy necessary to fuel their metabo ...

, but like other ''

Castilleja ''Castilleja'', commonly known as paintbrush, Indian paintbrush, or prairie-fire, is a genus of about 200 species of Annual plant, annual and Perennial plant, perennial mostly herbaceous plants native to the west of the Americas from Alaska sout ...

'' it is a hemiparasite, capable of tapping the roots of other plants via haustorial connections to obtain nutrients and water. Castilleja levisecta bracts

The

inflorescence In botany, an inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a plant's Plant stem, stem that is composed of a main branch or a system of branches. An inflorescence is categorized on the basis of the arrangement of flowers on a mai ...

contains bright golden yellow

bract In botany, a bract is a modified or specialized leaf, associated with a reproductive structure such as a flower, inflorescence axis or cone scale. Bracts are usually different from foliage leaves in size, color, shape or texture. They also lo ...

s with small green flowers tucked between them. It is the only ''Castilleja'' with yellow bracts within its range in the

Pacific Northwest The Pacific Northwest (PNW; ) is a geographic region in Western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Though no official boundary exists, the most common ...

. The plant is thought to be

pollinated Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther of a plant to the stigma of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds. Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, for example bees, beetles or butterflies; bird ...

bumblebee A bumblebee (or bumble bee, bumble-bee, or humble-bee) is any of over 250 species in the genus ''Bombus'', part of Apidae, one of the bee families. This genus is the only Extant taxon, extant group in the tribe Bombini, though a few extinct r ...

s, including '' Bombus californicus''. The species is nearly self-incompatible, and a plant produces many more seeds when crossed with a less closely related individual, such as a plant from a separate population.Caplow, F
Reintroduction Plan for Golden Paintbrush.
USFWS. 2004. It is known to hybridize and produce viable seed with '' Castilleja hispida'' (harsh paintbrush) in laboratory and experimental grassland settings. Golden paintbrush grows in

prairie Prairies are ecosystems considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, and a composition of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than trees, as the ...

habitat at low

elevation The elevation of a geographic location (geography), ''location'' is its height above or below a fixed reference point, most commonly a reference geoid, a mathematical model of the Earth's sea level as an equipotential gravitational equipotenti ...

s, generally in soils of

gravel Gravel () is a loose aggregation of rock fragments. Gravel occurs naturally on Earth as a result of sedimentation, sedimentary and erosion, erosive geological processes; it is also produced in large quantities commercially as crushed stone. Gr ...

ly, glacier-carved

sediment Sediment is a solid material that is transported to a new location where it is deposited. It occurs naturally and, through the processes of weathering and erosion, is broken down and subsequently sediment transport, transported by the action of ...

. It often occurs alongside Idaho fescue (''Festuca idahoensis'') and

red fescue ''Festuca rubra'' is a species of grass known by the common name red fescue, creeping red fescue or the rush-leaf fescue. It is widespread across much of the Northern Hemisphere and can tolerate many habitats and climates. It is best adapted to w ...

(''F. rubra''), and it is a member of the Garry Oak

ecosystem An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by Organism, organisms in interaction with their Biophysical environment, environment. The Biotic material, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and en ...

. The remaining Canadian occurrences of the species are on Trial Island and Alpha Islet off of

Vancouver Island Vancouver Island is an island in the northeastern Pacific Ocean and part of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The island is in length, in width at its widest point, and in total area, while are of land. The island is the largest ...

. There are nine populations in Washington in maritime grasslands and bluffs around the

Puget Sound Puget Sound ( ; ) is a complex estuary, estuarine system of interconnected Marine habitat, marine waterways and basins located on the northwest coast of the U.S. state of Washington (state), Washington. As a part of the Salish Sea, the sound ...

. Most of these are on islands, including several on

Whidbey Island Whidbey Island (historical spellings Whidby, Whitbey, or Whitby) is the largest of the islands composing Island County, Washington, Island County, Washington (state), Washington, in the United States, and the largest island in Washington stat ...

and one on

San Juan Island San Juan Island is the second-largest and most populous of the San Juan Islands in northwestern Washington, United States. It has a land area of 142.59 km2 (55.053 sq mi) and a population of 8,632 as of the 2020 census. Washington State F ...

. The species is

diploid Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Here ''sets of chromosomes'' refers to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, ...

and has very high

genetic diversity Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It ranges widely, from the number of species to differences within species, and can be correlated to the span of survival for a species. It is d ...

for a rare plant, a condition that makes it less likely to experience rapid

extinction Extinction is the termination of an organism by the death of its Endling, last member. A taxon may become Functional extinction, functionally extinct before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to Reproduction, reproduce and ...

. Conservation efforts are underway, especially attempts to increase populations by introducing and reintroducing plants to appropriate habitat, and carefully augmenting extant populations by planting more individuals. The plant has been reintroduced to its former range in the

Willamette Valley The Willamette Valley ( ) is a valley in Oregon, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The Willamette River flows the entire length of the valley and is surrounded by mountains on three sides: the Cascade Range to the east, the ...

in Oregon. These populations will be monitored for the long term, hopefully over twenty years, to assess their health and status.

Ecology and conservation

Golden paintbrush plays an important role in grassland community dynamics and multitrophic interactions. For example, its hemiparasitic reliance on other plant species in its habitat is thought to affect competition and dominance among other plant species in its community. Additionally, its foliage naturally contains defensive compounds called iridoid glycosides that are sequestered in the tissues of the endangered Taylor's checkerspot butterfly

larvae A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect developmental biology, development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typical ...

, which have developed a tolerance for these compounds and are able to consume golden paintbrush foliage. These sequestered iridoid glycosides then confer chemical protection against bird predators to the butterfly larvae. The grassland habitats in which golden paintbrush grows have traditionally undergone periodic

wildfire A wildfire, forest fire, or a bushfire is an unplanned and uncontrolled fire in an area of Combustibility and flammability, combustible vegetation. Depending on the type of vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a ...

s, and the golden paintbrush appears to thrive in this

fire regime A fire regime is the pattern, frequency, and intensity of the bushfires and wildfires that prevail in an area over long periods of time. It is an integral part of fire ecology, and renewal for certain types of ecosystems. A fire regime describes th ...

, possibly because fires clear out taller vegetation that would otherwise compete with it, or provide it nutrients in the ash. Fire frequency may also have effects on golden paintbrush's defensive phytochemistry. If the paintbrush is fire-adapted, it would experience negative effects from

fire suppression Fire suppression may refer to: * Firefighting * Fire suppression systems * Wildfire suppression Wildfire suppression is a range of firefighting tactics used to suppress wildfires. Firefighting efforts depend on many factors such as the availabl ...

efforts. Other threats to the species include

habitat destruction Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss or habitat reduction) occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved elsewhere, or are dead, leading to a decrease ...

during

residential A residential area is a land used in which houses, housing predominates, as opposed to industrial district, industrial and Commercial Area, commercial areas. Housing may vary significantly between, and through, residential areas. These include ...

or other development, and encroachment from introduced plant species such as mouse-ear hawkweed (''Hieracium pilosella''), Scotch broom (''Cytisus scoparius''), and oxeye daisy (''Leucanthemum vulgare''). Plants experience

herbivory A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically evolved to feed on plants, especially upon vascular tissues such as foliage, fruits or seeds, as the main component of its diet. These more broadly also encompass animals that eat n ...

by wild animals, trampling by hikers, and losses when they are picked by wildflower enthusiasts. The hybridization potential between golden and harsh paintbrush has been identified as a threat to the genetic integrity of golden paintbrush, requiring land managers to develop strategies for balancing the ecological needs of these two ''

'' species and endangered insects that rely on them.

References

External links

Cascadia Prairie Oak Partnership technical library items on ''Castilleja levisecta''Photo gallery
{{Authority control levisecta Flora of British Columbia Flora of Washington (state)