Cardinal virtues

The cardinal virtues are four virtues of mind and character in classical philosophy. They are prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. They form a virtue theory of ethics. The term ''cardinal'' comes from the Latin (hinge); these four virtues are called "cardinal" because all other virtues fall under them and hinge upon them.

These virtues derive initially from Plato in ''Republic'' Book IV, 426-435. Aristotle expounded them systematically in the ''Nicomachean Ethics''. They were also recognized by the Stoics and Cicero expanded on them. In the Christian tradition, they are also listed in the Deuterocanonical books in and , and the Doctors Ambrose, Augustine, and Aquinas expounded their supernatural counterparts, the three theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity.

Four cardinal virtues

* Prudence (, ; ; also wisdom, , ), the ability to discern the appropriate course of action to be taken in a given situation at the appropriate time, with consideration of potential consequences; cautiousness.
* Justice (, ; ): also considered as fairness; the Greek word also having the meaning righteousness.
* Courage (, ; ): forbearance, strength, endurance, fortitude (patience and perseverance), dedication and the ability to confront fear, uncertainty, and intimidation (bravery, boldness, valor, daring). Notably, , being closely related to ἀνήρ ("adult male"), could also be translated "manliness". Some other definitions of courage are "Andrea, virtus, spirit, heart, mettle, thumos, tenacity, gameness, resolution, bravery, boldness, valor, daring, hardihood, assertiveness, frame, gravitas, determination".
* Temperance (, ; ): also known as restraint, the practice of self-control, abstention, discretion, and moderation tempering the appetition. Plato considered , which may also be translated as sound-mindedness, to be the most important virtue. was often used in reference to drinking and "knowing the right amount" to avoid belligerence.

Gallery, depiction of the cardinal virtues in 9th-century Europe

An early European representation of the cardinal virtues from 845 AD is found in the Vivian Bible, Paris.

Biblia viviana virtues.jpg, The four virtues (in the corners) face a scene with King David (center), along with men who served David and who wrote psalms.
Fortitudo or Courage, from the Vivian Bible, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Latin 1, folio 215v.jpg, Fortitudo or Courage, from the Vivian Bible, Bibliothèque nationale, Latin 1, folio 215v.
Prydentia or Prudentia (Prudence), from the Vivian Bible, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Latin 1, folio 215v; the Four Cardinal Virtues are prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance.jpg, Prydentia or Prudentia (Prudence), from the Vivian Bible.
Iustitia or Justice, from the Vivian Bible, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Latin 1, folio 215v.jpg, Iustitia or Justice, from the Vivian Bible.
Temperantia or Temperance, from the Vivian Bible, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, Latin 1, folio 215v.jpg, Temperantia or Temperance, from the Vivian Bible.

Antiquity

The four cardinal virtues appeared as a group (sometimes included in larger lists) long before they were given this title.

Hellenistic philosophy

Plato associated the four cardinal virtues with the social classes of the ideal city described in ''The Republic'', and with the faculties of humanity. Plato narrates a discussion of the character of a good city where the following is agreed upon:

''Temperance'' was most closely associated with the producing classes, the farmers and craftsmen, to moderate their animal appetites. ''Fortitude'' was assigned to the warrior class, to strengthen their fighting spirit. ''Prudence'' was assigned to the rulers, to guide their reason. ''Justice'' stood above these three to properly regulate the relations among them.

Plato sometimes lists holiness (, , ) amongst the cardinal virtues. He especially associates holiness with justice, but leaves their precise relationship unexplained.

In Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'', we read:

These are expounded fully in the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' III.6-V.2.

Philo of Alexandria, a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher, also recognized the four cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, courage, and justice. In his writings, he states:

These virtues, according to Philo, serve as guiding principles for a virtuous and fulfilling life.

Roman philosophy

The Roman philosopher and statesman Cicero (106-43 BC), like Plato, limits the list to four virtues:

Cicero discusses these further in ''De Officiis'' (I, V, and following).

Seneca writes in about justice ( from Ancient Greek ), self-control ( from Ancient Greek ), practical wisdom ( from Ancient Greek ) and devotion () instead of courage ( from Ancient Greek ).

The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius discusses these in Book V:12 of ''Meditations'' and views them as the "goods" that a person should identify in one's own mind, as opposed to "wealth or things which conduce to luxury or prestige".

Suggestions of the Stoic virtues can be found in fragments in the Diogenes Laertius and Stobaeus.

The Platonist view of the four cardinal virtues is described in ''Definitions''.

Practical wisdom or prudence () is the perspicacity necessary to conduct personal business and affairs of state. It encompasses the skill to distinguish the beneficial from the detrimental, to understand the attainment of happiness, and to discern the right course of action in every situation. Its antithesis or opposite is the vice of folly.

Justice () is the harmonious alignment of one's inner self and the comprehensive integrity of the soul. It involves fostering sound discipline within each facet of our being, enabling us to live with others and extend the same regard to every individual. Additionally, justice pertains to a state's aptitude to equitably allocate resources based on individuals' deservingness, as determined by their merits. It entails refraining from undue harshness, fostering a universal perception of fairness. Furthermore, it entails embodying the qualities of a law-abiding citizen or member of society, upholding principles of social equality. Justice encompasses the formulation of laws that can be substantiated by valid justifications, leading to a society where actions align with these laws.

Moderation or temperance () is the capacity to temper the indulgence of desires and sensory pleasures within the bounds of what is customary for the individual, aligning only with experiences already familiar to the soul. It encompasses achieving a harmonious equilibrium and exercising disciplined control when it comes to overall pleasure and pain, ensuring that they remain within normal ranges. Moreover, moderation involves cultivating a harmonious relationship and a balanced rule between the soul's governing and being governed aspects. It signifies maintaining a state of natural self-reliance and exercising proper discipline as and when required by the soul. Rational consensus within the soul is essential concerning what merits admiration and what warrants disdain. This approach entails deliberate caution in one's choices, as one's selection navigates between the extremes.

Courage () can be defined as the ability to conquer fear within oneself when action is necessary. It encompasses military confidence, a deep understanding of warfare, and maintaining unwavering beliefs in the face of challenges. It involves self-discipline to overcome fear, obeying wisdom, and facing death boldly. Courage also entails maintaining sound judgment in tough situations, countering hostility, upholding virtues, remaining composed when faced with frightening (or encouraging) discussions and events, and not becoming discouraged. It reflects valuing the rule of law in our daily lives rather than diminishing its importance.

In the Bible

In the Old Testament

The cardinal virtues are listed in the deuterocanonical book , which reads:

They are also found in other non-canonical scriptures like , which relates:

In the New Testament

Wisdom, usually , rather than Prudence (), is discussed extensively in all parts of the New Testament. It is a major topic of 1 Corinthians 2, where the author discusses how divine teaching and power are greater than worldly wisdom.

Justice (, ) is taught in the gospels, where most translators give it as "righteousness".

Plato's word for Fortitude () is not present in the New Testament, but the virtues of steadfastness (, ) and patient endurance (, ) are praised. Paul exhorts believers to "act like men" (, , ).

Temperance (, ), usually translated "sobriety," is present in the New Testament, along with self-control (, ).

In Christian tradition

Catholic moral theology drew from both the Wisdom of Solomon and the Fourth Book of Maccabees in developing its thought on the virtues. Ambrose () used the expression "cardinal virtues":

Augustine of Hippo, discussing the morals of the church, described them:

In relation to the theological virtues

The "cardinal" virtues are not the same as the three theological virtues: Faith, Hope, and Charity (Love), named in 1 Corinthians 13.

Because of this reference, a group of seven virtues is sometimes listed by adding the four cardinal virtues (prudence, temperance, fortitude, justice) and three theological virtues (faith, hope, charity).
While the first four date back to Greek philosophers and were applicable to all people seeking to live moral lives, the ''theological virtues'' appear to be specific to Christians as written by Paul in the New Testament.

Efforts to relate the cardinal and theological virtues differ. Augustine sees faith as coming under justice. Beginning with a wry comment about the moral mischief of pagan deities, he writes:

Dante Alighieri also attempts to relate the cardinal and theological virtues in his Divine Comedy, most notably in the complex allegorical scheme drawn in ''Purgatorio'' XXIX to XXXI. Depicting a procession in the Garden of Eden (which the author situates at the top of the mountain of purgatory), Dante describes a chariot drawn by a gryphon and accompanied by a vast number of figures, among which stand three women on the right side dressed in red, green, and white, and four women on the left, all dressed in purple. The chariot is generally understood to represent the holy church, with the women on right and left representing the theological and cardinal virtues respectively. The exact meaning of the allegorical women's role, behaviour, interrelation, and color-coding remains a matter of literary interpretation.

In relation to the seven deadly sins

In the High Middle Ages, some authors opposed the seven virtues (cardinal plus theological) to the seven deadly sins. However, “treatises exclusively concentrating on both septenaries are actually quite rare.” and “examples of late medieval catalogues of virtues and vices which extend or upset the double heptad can be easily multiplied.” And there are problems with this parallelism:

Contemporary thought

Jesuit scholars Daniel J. Harrington and James F. Keenan, in their ''Paul and Virtue Ethics'' (2010), argue for seven "new virtues" to replace the classical cardinal virtues in complementing the three theological virtues, mirroring the seven earlier proposed in Bernard Lonergan's ''Method in Theology'' (1972): "be humble, be hospitable, be merciful, be faithful, reconcile, be vigilant, and be reliable".

Allegory

The Cardinal Virtues are often depicted as female allegorical figures. These were a popular subject for funerary sculpture. The attributes and names of these figures may vary according to local tradition.

Yves Decadt, a Flemish artist, has created a series of artworks titled “Falling Angels: Allegories about the 7 Sins and 7 Virtues for Falling Angels and other Curious Minds”.Gallery 'Le miroir de la mémoire'
"Falling Angels : Allegories about the 7 Sins and 7 Virtues for Falling Angels and other Curious Minds"
Zurich, 2023. The series explores the topic of morality, sins, and virtues, which have dominated Western cultures for more than 2000 years. In this work, Decadt follows in the footsteps of Pieter Breughel, who made a series of sketches on the 7 sins and 7 virtues about 500 years ago. The work takes the viewer on an adventurous trip through time and across the barriers and edges of reality, mythology, religion, and culture.

The virtues in art

In many churches and artwork the Cardinal Virtues are depicted with symbolic items:
; Justice
: sword, balance and scales, a crown

; Temperance
: wheel, bridle and reins, vegetables and fish, cup, water and wine in two jugs

; Fortitude
: armor, club, with a lion, palm, tower, a yoke, a broken column

; Prudence
: book, scroll, mirror, an attacking serpent

Notable depictions include sculptures on the tomb of Francis II, Duke of Brittany and the tomb of John Hotham. They were also depicted in the garden at Edzell Castle.

See also

*
*
*
*
*
*

Notes

References

Sources

*
*

External links

*
*
*

{{Sister bar, auto=yes, wikt=cardinal virtues, commons=Cardinal virtues in art

Christian ethics
Virtue
Republic (Plato)
Christian terminology