C.D. Darlington
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Cyril Dean Darlington (19 December 1903 – 26 March 1981) was an English
biologist A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology. Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual Cell (biology), cell, a multicellular organism, or a Community (ecology), community of Biological inter ...
,
cytologist Cell biology (also cellular biology or cytology) is a branch of biology that studies the structure, function, and behavior of cells. All living organisms are made of cells. A cell is the basic unit of life that is responsible for the living an ...
,
geneticist A geneticist is a biologist or physician who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms. A geneticist can be employed as a scientist or a lecturer. Geneticists may perform general research on genetic process ...
, and
eugenicist Eugenics is a set of largely discredited beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetics, genetic quality of a human population. Historically, eugenicists have attempted to alter the frequency of various human Phenotype, phenotypes by ...
. He discovered the mechanics of
chromosomal crossover Chromosomal crossover, or crossing over, is the exchange of genetic material during sexual reproduction between two homologous chromosomes' sister chromatids, non-sister chromatids that results in recombinant chromosomes. It is one of the fina ...
, its role in
inheritance Inheritance is the practice of receiving private property, titles, debts, entitlements, privileges, rights, and obligations upon the death of an individual. The rules of inheritance differ among societies and have changed over time. Offi ...
, and thus its importance to
evolution Evolution is the change in the heritable Phenotypic trait, characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. It occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, re ...
. He was the
Sherardian Professor of Botany The Sherardian Chair of Botany is a professorship at the University of Oxford that was established in 1734. It was created following an endowment by William Sherard on his death in 1728. In his will, Sherard stipulated that the first holder of t ...
at the
University of Oxford The University of Oxford is a collegiate university, collegiate research university in Oxford, England. There is evidence of teaching as early as 1096, making it the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the List of oldest un ...
from 1953 to 1971. Darlington's research on genetics contributed to the
modern evolutionary synthesis Modern synthesis or modern evolutionary synthesis refers to several perspectives on evolutionary biology, namely: * Modern synthesis (20th century), the term coined by Julian Huxley in 1942 to denote the synthesis between Mendelian genetics and s ...
in the 20th century. However, many of his views are controversial; Darlington was listed in 1999 by the
Southern Poverty Law Center The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) is an American 501(c)(3) nonprofit legal advocacy organization specializing in civil rights and public interest litigation. Based in Montgomery, Alabama, it is known for its legal cases against white ...
as an example of a prominent race scientist who espoused
antisemitism Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemi ...
, eugenics, racism, and
social Darwinism Charles Darwin, after whom social Darwinism is named Social Darwinism is a body of pseudoscientific theories and societal practices that purport to apply biological concepts of natural selection and survival of the fittest to sociology, economi ...
.


Biography


Early life

Cyril Darlington was born in
Chorley Chorley is a town and the administrative centre of the wider Borough of Chorley in Lancashire, England, north of Wigan, south west of Blackburn, north west of Bolton, south of Preston and north west of Manchester. The town's wealth ca ...
, a small
cotton Cotton (), first recorded in ancient India, is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus '' Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure ...
town in
Lancashire Lancashire ( , ; abbreviated ''Lancs'') is a ceremonial county in North West England. It is bordered by Cumbria to the north, North Yorkshire and West Yorkshire to the east, Greater Manchester and Merseyside to the south, and the Irish Sea to ...
,
England England is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and List of islands of England, more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. It ...
in 1903. He had one brother, six years older. His father, William, was a teacher at a small school. When Darlington was eight, the family moved to
London London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
. His childhood was an unhappy one, characterized by a stern, bitter, and frustrated father, who struggled against
poverty Poverty is a state or condition in which an individual lacks the financial resources and essentials for a basic standard of living. Poverty can have diverse Biophysical environmen ...
. Darlington enjoyed neither sports nor studies (including at the
Mercers' School The Mercers' School was an independent school in the City of London, England, with a history going back at least to 1542, and perhaps much further. It was operated by the Worshipful Company of Mercers and was closed in 1959. History After the ...
and
St Paul's School, London St Paul's School is a Selective school, selective Private schools in the United Kingdom, independent day school (with limited boarding school, boarding) for boys aged 13–18, founded in 1509 by John Colet and located on a 43-acre site by Rive ...
). He began to develop a disdain for authority. He decided to become a farmer in
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
, so he applied to the South Eastern Agricultural College at Wye, known later as
Wye College The College of St Gregory and St Martin at Wye, commonly known as Wye College, was an education and research institution in the village of Wye, Kent. In 1447, Cardinal (Catholic Church), Cardinal John Kempe founded his chantry there which also ...
. He was an indifferent student, but his social life took a turn for the better when he took up boxing, with moderate success. He was then six feet three inches tall, and an imposing figure. One subject that captured his imagination, however, was
Mendelian genetics Mendelian inheritance (also known as Mendelism) is a type of biological inheritance following the principles originally proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and 1866, re-discovered in 1900 by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns, and later popularized ...
, taught by the
myriapodologist Myriapodology is the scientific study of myriapods which includes centipedes and millipedes. The field of myriapodology can also cover other myriapods such as pauropods and symphylans. Those who study myriapods are myriapodologists. Societies * ...
Stanley Graham Brade-Birks. Darlington's interest in the subject began after he discovered
Thomas Hunt Morgan Thomas Hunt Morgan (September 25, 1866 – December 4, 1945) was an Americans, American evolutionary biologist, geneticist, Embryology, embryologist, and science author who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1933 for discoveries e ...
's ''The Physical Basis of Heredity.'' He graduated with a London University Ordinary degree in 1923.


Early professional years

After being turned down for a scholarship to go to Trinidad as a farmer, Darlington was encouraged in 1923 by one of his professors to apply for a scholarship at the
John Innes Horticultural Institution The John Innes Centre (JIC), located in Norwich, Norfolk, England, is an independent centre for research and training in plant and microbial science founded in 1910. It is a registered charity (No 223852) grant-aided by the Biotechnology and B ...
in Merton. He wrote to its director,
William Bateson William Bateson (8 August 1861 – 8 February 1926) was an English biologist who was the first person to use the term genetics to describe the study of heredity, and the chief populariser of the ideas of Gregor Mendel following their rediscover ...
, famous for having introduced the word "genetics" into biology. His application was unsuccessful, but he obtained a temporary post as an unpaid technician. Bateson had just hired a
cytologist Cell biology (also cellular biology or cytology) is a branch of biology that studies the structure, function, and behavior of cells. All living organisms are made of cells. A cell is the basic unit of life that is responsible for the living an ...
, Frank Newton, who became a mentor to Darlington. Darlington published his first scientific paper on the tetraploidy of the sour cherry and was hired as a permanent employee. Shortly after, both Bateson and Newton died within a year of each other and J.B.S. Haldane came to the Innes. Although neither an
experimentalist Experimentalism is the philosophical belief that the way to truth is through experiments and empiricism. It is also associated with instrumentalism, the belief that truth should be evaluated based upon its demonstrated usefulness. Experimentalism is ...
nor cytologist, Haldane formed a close friendship with Darlington. He began to make contributions to the understanding of the relationship between
chromosomal crossover Chromosomal crossover, or crossing over, is the exchange of genetic material during sexual reproduction between two homologous chromosomes' sister chromatids, non-sister chromatids that results in recombinant chromosomes. It is one of the fina ...
and the events observed during
meiosis Meiosis () is a special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually-reproducing organisms that produces the gametes, the sperm or egg cells. It involves two rounds of division that ultimately result in four cells, each with only one c ...
. In February 1929 he made a study trip with fellow
botanist Botany, also called plant science, is the branch of natural science and biology studying plants, especially Plant anatomy, their anatomy, Plant taxonomy, taxonomy, and Plant ecology, ecology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who s ...
John Macqueen Cowan to the
Near East The Near East () is a transcontinental region around the Eastern Mediterranean encompassing the historical Fertile Crescent, the Levant, Anatolia, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula. The term was invented in the 20th ...
. In 1931 he began writing the book ''Recent Advances in Cytology,'' which was published in 1932. He became Director of the Cytology Department in 1937, and he became director of the Innes two years later, 15 years after his arrival as an unpaid volunteer. He was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society Fellowship of the Royal Society (FRS, ForMemRS and HonFRS) is an award granted by the Fellows of the Royal Society of London to individuals who have made a "substantial contribution to the improvement of natural science, natural knowledge, incl ...
on 20 March 1941. A few months after that, he was awarded the
Royal Medal The Royal Medal, also known as The Queen's Medal and The King's Medal (depending on the gender of the monarch at the time of the award), is a silver-gilt medal, of which three are awarded each year by the Royal Society. Two are given for "the mo ...
, and then was elected president of the Genetical Society. In 1947 he co-founded with
Ronald Fisher Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher (17 February 1890 – 29 July 1962) was a British polymath who was active as a mathematician, statistician, biologist, geneticist, and academic. For his work in statistics, he has been described as "a genius who a ...
the journal '' Heredity: An International Journal of Genetics'', as a response to J.B.S. Haldane joining the Communist party and "taking the ''
Journal of Genetics The ''Journal of Genetics'' is a peer-reviewed scientific journal in the field of genetics and evolution. It was established in 1910 by the British geneticists William Bateson and Reginald Punnett and is one of the oldest genetics journals. It ...
'' with him".


Later years

He left the Innes in 1953 and accepted the Sherardian Chair of Botany at
Oxford University The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university in Oxford, England. There is evidence of teaching as early as 1096, making it the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the second-oldest continuously operating u ...
. He developed an interest in the Botanic Garden, going on to establish the 'Genetic Garden'. He was also involved in extending the teaching of science, especially genetics, in the university. He continued to voice support for the belief that human genetics determined behaviour. In 1972 he, along with 50 other scientists, signed "Resolution on Scientific Freedom Regarding Human Behavior and Heredity" in which a genetic approach to understanding the behaviour of man was strongly defended. He staunchly defended his colleague,
John Baker John Baker or Jon Baker may refer to: Military figures *John Baker (American Revolutionary War) (1731–1787), American Revolutionary War hero, for whom Baker County, Georgia was named *John Baker (general) (1936–2007), Australian Chief of the ...
, who published the controversial book ''Race'' in 1974, in the fight against
Lysenkoism Lysenkoism ( ; ) was a political campaign led by the Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenko against genetics and science-based agriculture in the mid-20th century, rejecting natural selection in favour of a form of Lamarckism, as well as expanding upon ...
. Asked by a reporter for
The Sunday Times ''The Sunday Times'' is a British Sunday newspaper whose circulation makes it the largest in Britain's quality press market category. It was founded in 1821 as ''The New Observer''. It is published by Times Newspapers Ltd, a subsidiary of N ...
whether or not he was a
racist Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one Race (human categorization), race or ethnicity over another. It may also me ...
for this connection to John Baker, who believed that no civilizations had ever arisen in Africa, all " negrids" had a "fetid smell" and were "less evolved," Darlington replied: "Well, I'm regarded as one by everyone except the
Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
, who ''are'' racist, and who utterly agree with my views." Darlington retired from his official position at the university in 1971, but remained in the university, writing and publishing his work. He died in Oxford in 1981. He had five children, two of whom committed
suicide Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Risk factors for suicide include mental disorders, physical disorders, and substance abuse. Some suicides are impulsive acts driven by stress (such as from financial or ac ...
.


Sociobiology and the Lysenko Affair

In his later years, Darlington increased his participation in the public debate about the role of science in society, and especially its interaction with politics and government. Beginning in 1948, he published strong condemnations of the denouncement of Mendelian genetics in favour of
Lysenkoism Lysenkoism ( ; ) was a political campaign led by the Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenko against genetics and science-based agriculture in the mid-20th century, rejecting natural selection in favour of a form of Lamarckism, as well as expanding upon ...
in the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
. Some genetics institutes were destroyed, and prominent geneticists were purged or murdered. These events caused an upheaval among the leaders of genetics in the west, many of whom were
leftist Left-wing politics describes the range of political ideologies that support and seek to achieve social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy either as a whole or of certain social hierarchies. Left-wing politi ...
,
socialists Socialism is an economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes the economic, political, and socia ...
,
communists Communism () is a sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology within the socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a socioeconomic order centered on common ownership of the means of production, d ...
, and
Marxists Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, and ...
. This caused a break between Haldane and Darlington, who was intransigent in his
anti-authoritarian Anti-authoritarianism is opposition to authoritarianism. Anti-authoritarians usually believe in full equality before the law and strong civil liberties. Sometimes the term is used interchangeably with anarchism, an ideology which entails opposing a ...
views. Darlington developed an interest in the application of genetic insights to the understanding of human history. He believed that not only were there differences in the character and culture between individuals, but that these differences also exist between races. To him, understanding of these differences in scientific terms was not only interesting in its own right, but was crucial to the development of a civil society. Darlington writes that "as slaves," enslaved diasporic Africans "improved in health and increased in numbers," without addressing the role of forced slave breeding in the United States. He repeated the myth that their environment was "more favorable than anything they had experienced in Africa." According to Darlington,
emancipation of slaves Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the political movement to end slavery and liberate enslaved individuals around the world. The first country to fully outlaw slavery was France in 1315, but it was later used in its colonies. T ...
resulted in the withdrawal of "discipline" and "protection" resulting in social problems such as "
drugs A drug is any chemical substance other than a nutrient or an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect. Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestio ...
,
gambling Gambling (also known as betting or gaming) is the wagering of something of Value (economics), value ("the stakes") on a Event (probability theory), random event with the intent of winning something else of value, where instances of strategy (ga ...
, and
prostitution Prostitution is a type of sex work that involves engaging in sexual activity in exchange for payment. The definition of "sexual activity" varies, and is often defined as an activity requiring physical contact (e.g., sexual intercourse, no ...
." Darlington concluded: "The intellectually well-endowed races, classes, and societies have a moral responsibility for the problems of race mixture, of immigration and exploitation, that have arisen from their exercise of economic and political power. They may hope to escape from these responsibilities by claiming an intellectual and, therefore, moral equality between all races, classes, and societies. But the chapters of this book, step by step, deprive them of the scientific and historical evidence that might support such a comfortable illusion." Darlington was opposed to the UNESCO Statement of Race. He agreed with Darwin's classical view: "The races differ also in constitution, in acclimatization, and in liability to certain diseases. Their mental characteristics are likewise very distinct; chiefly as it would appear in their emotional, but partly in their intellectual, faculties." To simplify, Darlington believed that there is a difference not just in skin color and disease vulnerability between races, but also in
intelligence Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for abstraction, logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. It can be described as t ...
. Darlington thought that there might be a biological justification to prohibit
interracial marriage Interracial marriage is a marriage involving spouses who belong to different "Race (classification of human beings), races" or Ethnic group#Ethnicity and race, racialized ethnicities. In the past, such marriages were outlawed in the United Sta ...
s "if intermarriage were not contrary to the habits of all stable communities and therefore in no need of discouragement." He refused to sign the revised 1951 statement which conceded that racial differences in intelligence possibly existed. Darlington's dissenting commentary was printed with the statement.


Bibliography

(A partial list) * ''Chromosomes and Plant Breeding,'' Macmillan (1932). * ''Recent Advances in Cytology,'' Churchill (1932). * ''Chromosome Atlas of Cultivated Plants,'' C D Darlington and E K Janaki Ammal (1945). * '' The Facts of Life,'' George Allen and Unwin (1953). * ''Darwin's Place in History,'' Blackwell (1959). * ''Chromosome Botany and the Origins of Cultivated Plants,'' Hafner Pub. Co (1963). * . * ''Cytology,'' Churchill (1965). * * ''The Little Universe of Man,'' George Allen and Unwin (1978) .


In popular culture

In the 2022 second season episode "
The Primal Theory "The Primal Theory" is the fifth episode of second season the American adult animated action-drama '' Primal'', which aired on Adult Swim on August 12, 2022. Written by Darrick Bachman and Genndy Tartakovsky and directed by the latter, in a "de ...
" of the animated series '' Primal'', a fictionalised version of Darlington appears as a main character, voiced by
Jeremy Crutchley Jeremy Crutchley is a South African actor. He played roles in the television series '' Salem'', '' Black Sails'', '' Leonardo'', '' Constantine'' and ''Hannibal'' and several theatre and cinema works in a career spanning for more than four decad ...
.


References


External links

* Oren Solomon Harman (2004) ''The Man Who Invented the Chromosome: A Life of Cyril Darlington'' . * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Darlington, Cyril Dean 1903 births 1981 deaths 20th-century British botanists 20th-century English male writers People educated at Mercers' School People educated at St Paul's School, London Academics of the University of Oxford Alumni of Imperial College London Charles Darwin biographers Critics of Lamarckism English geneticists English biologists English eugenicists British white supremacists Fellows of the Royal Society Modern synthesis (20th century) People from Chorley Royal Medal winners Sherardian Professors of Botany Alumni of Wye College Proponents of scientific racism