Throughout the fifth century, Hellenistic-Eastern political systems,

philosophies List of philosophies, schools of thought and philosophical movements. A Absurdism – Academic skepticism – Accelerationism - Achintya Bheda Abheda – Action, philosophy of – Actual idealism – Actualism – Advaita Vedanta ...

, and

theocratic Theocracy is a form of autocracy or oligarchy in which one or more deities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries, with executive and legislative power, who manage the government's daily a ...

Christian concepts had gained power in the Greek-speaking

Eastern Mediterranean The Eastern Mediterranean is a loosely delimited region comprising the easternmost portion of the Mediterranean Sea, and well as the adjoining land—often defined as the countries around the Levantine Sea. It includes the southern half of Turkey ...

due to the intervention of important religious figures there such as

Eusebius of Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea (30 May AD 339), also known as Eusebius Pamphilius, was a historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christian polemicist from the Roman province of Syria Palaestina. In about AD 314 he became the bishop of Caesarea Maritima. ...

() and

Origen of Alexandria Origen of Alexandria (), also known as Origen Adamantius, was an early Christian scholar, ascetic, and theologian who was born and spent the first half of his career in Alexandria. He was a prolific writer who wrote roughly 2,000 treatises i ...

() who had been key to developing the constant Christianized worldview of

late antiquity Late antiquity marks the period that comes after the end of classical antiquity and stretches into the onset of the Early Middle Ages. Late antiquity as a period was popularized by Peter Brown (historian), Peter Brown in 1971, and this periodiza ...

. By the 6th century, such ideas had already influenced the definitive power of the monarch as the representative of God on earth and of his kingdom as an imitation of God's holy realm. The

Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...

was a multi-ethnic monarchic

theocracy Theocracy is a form of autocracy or oligarchy in which one or more deity, deities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries, with executive and legislative power, who manage the government's ...

adopting, following, and applying the Orthodox- Hellenistic political systems and

. The monarch was the incarnation of the law'' nomos empsychos''and his power was immeasurable and divine in origin insofar as he channeled God's divine grace, maintaining what is good. He was the ultimate benefactor, caretaker, and saviour of the people: '' Evergétis'', '' Philanthrōpía'', and '' Sōtēr,'' anointed with all power, upholding the divine laws since he ought to emulate Christ first (''christomimetes'') in all of his divine, pious, loving orthodox attributes to all by being his earthly presence. The people in turn were the monarch's ''

paroikoi ''Paroikoi'' (plural of Greek πάροικος, ''paroikos'', the etymological origin of parish and parochial) is the term that replaced "metic" in the Hellenistic and Roman period to designate foreign residents. In the Byzantine Empire, ''paroiko ...

'' (subjects). He was the sole administrator and lawgiver of the holy '' Basileia'' and ''

Oikoumene In ancient Greece, the term ''oecumene'' (British English, UK) or ''ecumene'' (American English, US; ) denoted the known, inhabited, or habitable world. In classical antiquity, Greek antiquity, it referred to the portions of the world known to li ...

'' (commonwealth), with sole power over the state, the land, and his subjects, which he had achieved through God's appointment of him as king. This opened a new stage of reverence in which Hellenistic and Eastern

court A court is an institution, often a government entity, with the authority to adjudicate legal disputes between Party (law), parties and Administration of justice, administer justice in Civil law (common law), civil, Criminal law, criminal, an ...

ceremonies such as

proskynesis Proskynesis (), also called proscynesis () or proskinesis (; ; ), was a solemn gesture of respect towards gods and people in many societies. Among the Persians, it referred to a man prostrating himself and kissing the land or the limbs of a r ...

highlighted the divinity of the ruler and became standardized and often mandatory. In practice, imperial power was exercised as administrationsimplified and centralized through

viceroy A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the Anglo-Norman ''roy'' (Old Frenc ...

s such as the ''

Exarch An exarch (; from Ancient Greek ἔξαρχος ''exarchos'') was the holder of any of various historical offices, some of them being political or military and others being ecclesiastical. In the late Roman Empire and early Byzantine Empire, ...

os'', ''Douk'', ''

Katepánō The ''katepánō'' (, ) was a senior Byzantine military rank and office. The word was Latinized as ''capetanus/catepan'', and its meaning seems to have merged with that of the Italian "capitaneus" (which derives from the Latin word "caput", mean ...

'', '' Kephalai'' and the ''

Strategoi ''Strategos'' (), also known by its Latinized form ''strategus'', is a Greek term to mean 'military general'. In the Hellenistic world and in the Byzantine Empire, the term was also used to describe a military governor. In the modern Hellenic ...

'' who enjoyed the same omnipotence and the emperor's God given divinity in their respective governorships. Such concentrations of power proved to be both an internal weakness and the cause of various coups and rebellions in which viceroys with provincial armies and, sometimes, entire themes, would often challenge imperial power with claims of their own. In this way emperors such as

Nikephoros II Phokas Nikephoros II Phokas (; – 11 December 969), Latinized Nicephorus II Phocas, was Byzantine emperor from 963 to 969. His career, not uniformly successful in matters of statecraft or of war, nonetheless greatly contributed to the resurgence of t ...

() and

Heraclius Heraclius (; 11 February 641) was Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the Exarch of Africa, led a revolt against the unpopular emperor Phocas. Heraclius's reign was ...

() achieved royal power for themselves. There were no codified laws on the imperial succession, and the

Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( ) was the era of Ancient Rome, classical Roman civilisation beginning with Overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establis ...

was never formally abolished. Theoretically, each

emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...

was formally elected, by both the

senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...

(Synkletos) and the

army An army, ground force or land force is an armed force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the land-based military branch, service branch or armed service of a nation or country. It may also include aviation assets by ...

. In practice, however, the Senate had lost all of its former powers and was mostly reduced to a ceremonial role, filled with relatives or close aristocrats to the Emperor; while the Army practically had a monopoly regarding elections. Emperors usually managed to secure succession for their children through indirect means, such as appointing them as co-emperors, and thus introduced various

dynasties A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics. A dynasty may also be referred to as a "house", "family" or "clan", among others. Historians ...

. The absence of codified succession laws and procedures, as well as the militarized state of the Empire, led to a number of coups and revolts, leading to several disastrous results, such as the 1071 defeat at

Manzikert Malazgirt (; ; ), historically known as Manzikert (), is a town in Muş Province in Turkey. It is the seat of Malazgirt District.Oikonomia'', and he was its Christ-loving owner and manager ''

Oikonomos ''Oikonomos'' (, from - 'house' and - 'rule, law'), Latinization of names, Latinized œconomus, oeconomus, or economos, was an Ancient Greek word meaning "household manager." In Byzantine Empire, Byzantine times, the term was used as a title of ...

'', which meant that no individual or institution through the history of the empire truly owned any land in the face of state supreme ownership. Beneath the emperor, a multitude of officials and court functionariesall directly chosen by the emperor or by one of his representativesoperated the empire's administrative bureaucracy. State officials acted not as magistrates or elected public

legates A legate (Latin: , ) was a high-ranking Roman military officer in the Roman army, equivalent to a high-ranking general officer of modern times. Initially used to delegate power, the term became formalised under Augustus as the officer in comman ...

, but as representatives, deputies, and viceroys of the monarch in his different domains throughout the empire. In addition to those officials, a number of honorific titles existed, which the emperor awarded to prominent subjects or to friendly foreign rulers. Over the more than a thousand years of the empire's existence, the Imperial administrative system evolved in its adoption of historic titles. At first, the various titles of the empire were the same as those of the

late Late or LATE may refer to: Everyday usage * Tardy, or late, not being on time * Late (or the late) may refer to a person who is dead Music * ''Late'' (The 77s album), 2000 * Late (Alvin Batiste album), 1993 * Late!, a pseudonym used by Dave Groh ...

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...

. However, by the era of

(), a number of the titles had become obsolete. By the time of Alexios I (), a number of the positions were either new or drastically changed. However, from that time on, they remained essentially the same until the

fall of the Byzantine Empire The Fall of Constantinople, also known as the Conquest of Constantinople, was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Empire. The city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 55-day siege which ha ...

in 1453.

Background history

In the early Byzantine period (4th to late 6th century), the administrative structure of the empire was a conglomeration of the late Roman Empire's diocese system, set up by

Diocletian Diocletian ( ; ; ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed Jovius, was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Diocles to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia. As with other Illyri ...

and Constantine, and of Justinian's innovations; in the years 535 and 536 Justinian's administrative reforms were formalized. This eliminated the administrative diocese system hierarchy established in previous centuries and with it the strict military and civic divisions within the empire, replacing it with various provincial circumscriptions directly governed by deputies of the emperor, variously called '' Stratalates'', ''

'' and '' Harmost''. These deputies held extraordinary military and administrative powers accompanied by prestigious new titleholders in an attempt to lessen corruption and simplify the emperor's direct handling over its domains, foreshadowing similar future administrative reforms initiated and endorsed by contemporary divine Orthodox monarchical philosophy in the Greek-speaking eastern Mediterranean. Following the transformation of the Byzantine state during the 7th century due to massive territorial loss to the

Muslim conquests The Muslim conquests, Muslim invasions, Islamic conquests, including Arab conquests, Arab Islamic conquests, also Iranian Muslim conquests, Turkic Muslim conquests etc. *Early Muslim conquests ** Ridda Wars **Muslim conquest of Persia *** Muslim co ...

, this early structuring came to be replaced by the thematic military system whose functions had been simplified and specialized in the rapid creation of provincial armies. Influenced by Orthodox kingship and Hellenistic theocratic

, power was relegated to military leaders, with the various

, Katepan, Douk, Kephalai or

each acting as

s in their respective ''" thémata"'' or governorships, all being appointed by the sovereign directly. These governors, being the direct representatives of the monarch himself all through the provinces, enjoyed an omnipotence of their own, accompanied by the divine attributes for being deputies of the emperor himself in their respective districts. Their primary tasks were jointly working with the various provincial subordinates of the capital bureaus for the effective collection of taxes from the different communities ''("Chora", "Komai"),'' from the different land owners estates ''("proasteion"),'' and from monasteries ''("

episkepsis An ''episkepsis'' ( , pl. ''episkepseis'', ) was a fiscal district in the middle Byzantine Empire (10th–13th centuries). In its strict technical sense, it refers to a domain or other property, in some cases including entire villages or towns, allo ...

")''. Additionally, and more commonly, as the right hand of the emperor in the management of internal and external affairs, they had to provide an efficient management of fast and flexible provincial armies, dispatching them to appease different threats within the borders, or for the management of new successful territorial acquisitions after long-term campaigns, thereby taking key roles as protagonists of any armed offensive headed by the emperor. A

Strategos ''Strategos'' (), also known by its Linguistic Latinisation, Latinized form ''strategus'', is a Greek language, Greek term to mean 'military General officer, general'. In the Hellenistic world and in the Byzantine Empire, the term was also use ...

, or any military governor, was assisted by several deputies, chief among them the '' tourmarchēs'' or '' merarchēs'' (to a lesser degree also referred as '' topotērētēs''). The main provincial governors and their deputies held equal military and administrative duties within the main sub-division inside a thema, a '' tourma''. These deputies, or any deputy or representative of the Strategos, or of any other military governor, were generally called '' Ek prosopou'', second to them the ''Krites'' or '' Praitor'' were responsible for the judicial matters inside a Theme. Although the range of tasks of the ''Krites'' or ''Praitor'' were neither fixed nor dogmatic, as they are shown assisting in various military campaigns or, on occasions, replacing the Strategos in his military duties. Due to the lack of action or large-scale battles in the thematas of

mainland Greece Greece is a country in Southeastern Europe, on the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula. It is bordered to the north by Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria; to the east by Turkey, and is surrounded to the east by the Aegean Sea, to the south by the Cret ...

, by the 12th century most of these came to be governed directly by the Megas doux, under him the ''Krites'' or ''Archons'' of the various coastal cities. The ''themes'', now made up of several ''

Archon ''Archon'' (, plural: , ''árchontes'') is a Greek word that means "ruler", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem , meaning "to be first, to rule", derived from the same ...

tates,'' was accommodated and repurposed solely for the income and maintenance of the Byzantine navy, fulfilling a tax supporting role in contrast from the more active and military themas of ''Strategos'' and ''Katepanos'' focussed in Asia Minor. The duties of said governors were limited to the collection of the various maritime taxes of their governorships; the management of the various urban centers such as Athens, Corinth or Thebes; and a basic level of protection for its provinces against pirates and any other parties. During the "classic" or middle period of the Byzantine state (8th-late 11th centuries), a new, court-centered system emerged. In this, dignities of a certain level were awarded with new titles derived from older, now obsolete, public offices. A senatorial class remained in place, which incorporated a part of the upper officialdom; every official from the rank of ''

protospatharios ''Prōtospatharios'' () was one of the highest Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy, court dignities of the middle Byzantine Empire, Byzantine period (8th to 12th centuries), awarded to senior generals and provincial governors, as well as to forei ...

'' (literally "first sword-bearer"; originally the head of the Emperor's bodyguards) was considered a member of it. During this period, multiple families remained important for several centuries, and several Emperors rose from the aristocracy. Two groups can be distinguished: a metropolitan civil nobility and a provincial military one, the latter remaining regionally based and having land-holdings, but apparently no military forces of their own, in contrast to contemporary Western Europe. The backbone of Byzantine administration and economy (until the

fall of Constantinople The Fall of Constantinople, also known as the Conquest of Constantinople, was the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Empire. The city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 55-da ...

) was the joint tax liability system of the different communities inside a '' théma,'' duties which were carried out by provincial officials such as the ''epoptes'', ''

exisotes ''Exisōtēs'' () was a fiscal official in the last centuries of the Byzantine Empire. Its functions were similar to those of the earlier '' epoptes'', along with whom it is often mentioned in the 11th centuries: the ''exisōsis'' (ἐξίσωσι ...

,'' and ''praktores'' of the different bureaus. A

Theme Theme or themes may refer to: * Theme (Byzantine district), an administrative district in the Byzantine Empire governed by a Strategos * Theme (computing), a custom graphical appearance for certain software. * Theme (linguistics), topic * Theme ( ...

was made up of several individuals and institutions, such as the various lands that the monasteries owned ''(episkepsis)'', the soldiers' farming lands ''(stratiotai),'' the estates ''(proasteion)'' of the land owners ''(

dynatoi The ''dynatoi'' (, sing. Δυνατός, ''Dynatos'' "the powerful") was a legal term in the Byzantine Empire, denoting the senior levels of civil, military and ecclesiastic (including monastic) officialdom, who usually, but not always, also comma ...

)'' and the peasants ''(geōrgikē)'', with most of a village or town ''(chora or komai)'' being made up of the latter. These were the main source of a constant and rapid revenue that ultimately derived from the earlier Hellenistic fiscal and administrative principle of ''"epibole".'' ''Epibole'' had served as an accessible tool for the

Hellenistic kingdoms The Diadochi were the rival generals, families, and friends of Alexander the Great who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323 BC. The Wars of the Diadochi mark the beginning of the Hellenistic period from the Mediterran ...

for the simple income and rapid collection of taxes by deputies towards various rural communities in the war-time

Hellenistic period In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...

, after having been adopted and adapted from the late Roman and early Byzantine province of Egypt, which had kept its own former fixed fiscal system, proving this measure to be an indirect consequence of the multiple wars and invasions that Byzantium had to deal throughout its history. After the reforms of Alexios I, the system underwent various changes in which, due to the desperate state of the empire and the urgent need for income to finance its military campaigns and strengthen its borders, several simplifications and concessions were made. The theme system established under the

Komnenoi The House of Komnenos ( Komnenoi; , , ), Latinized as Comnenus ( Comneni), was a Byzantine Greek noble family who ruled the Byzantine Empire in the 11th and 12th centuries. The first reigning member, Isaac I Komnenos, ruled from 1057 to 1059. Th ...

would remain the administrative basis of the Byzantine state until its final fall in 1453, differing in few key aspects from its administrative predecessors; it highlighted a greater centralization of power. The various Themes had been divided into smaller districts called ''"Katepanakia"'' which in turn were made up of the various towns and villages ''(chora)'', the monastic estates ''(episkepsis)'', the estates of the dynatoi ''(proasteion)'', and the various ''

pronoia The ''pronoia'' (plural ''pronoiai''; Greek: πρόνοια, meaning "care", "forethought" or "providence," from πρό, "before," and νόος, "mind") was a system of granting dedicated streams of state income to individuals and institutions i ...

'' grants. The Themes were ruled by a ''"Doux"'', who was positioned by the emperor directly, commonly a relative of his or a close aristocrat to the

Basileus ''Basileus'' () is a Greek term and title that has signified various types of monarchs throughout history. In the English language, English-speaking world, it is perhaps most widely understood to mean , referring to either a or an . The title ...

. The Katepanakia inside the Theme were ruled by a deputy of the Doux called a ''"Praktor"'' or ''"Energon",'' they were appointed either by the monarch or the Doux himself, with the primary task of the collection of taxes and a second role in the maintenance of basic order, administration and justice in his district.

Alexios Alexius is the Latinization (literature), Latinized form of the given name Alexios (, polytonic , "defender", cf. Alexander), especially common in the Byzantine Empire. The female form is Alexia (given name), Alexia () and its variants such as Ales ...

fiscal reforms allowed an institution or individual to catalog and group their land domains and, through it, their fiscal obligations, in a document referred as ''praktikon''. The new reform essentially broke from the integrity of the ''"chora"'' or village tax, as its new purpose was the collection of the various taxes regardless of whether collection was by an institution, individual or the village itself, essentially offering it to the highest bidder. Although a simplification, it was not an improvement, as it pushed a variety of villages and towns to eventually be added to the different ''episkpesis'' of either the adjoining monasteries or of the various well-resourced ''

'' landowners, who would become responsible for both their fiscal obligations as monastic institutions, or as individuals, and for the fiscal obligations of the various towns and villages in their domain. This trend culminated in the eventual disappearance of the fiscal individuality that each commune or town had enjoyed, something which emperors like

Basil II Basil II Porphyrogenitus (; 958 – 15 December 1025), nicknamed the Bulgar Slayer (, ), was the senior Byzantine emperor from 976 to 1025. He and his brother Constantine VIII were crowned before their father Romanos II died in 963, but t ...

had fought and delayed with special taxes such as the

allelengyon The ''allelengyon'' () was a tax established in 1002 by the Byzantine Emperor Basil II, requiring the wealthiest landowners to pay the tax debts owed by their poorer neighbours. It relied on a concept long extant in Hellenistic and Byzantine law, b ...

. Becoming one of several towns within the estates of the different institutions and individuals of the time was an unbearable phenomenon for multiple communes due to the various fiscal tolerances that the ''

basileus ''Basileus'' () is a Greek term and title that has signified various types of monarchs throughout history. In the English language, English-speaking world, it is perhaps most widely understood to mean , referring to either a or an . The title ...

'' offered the different monastic institutions and their estates, further accelerating the disappearance of the fiscal individuality of the villages and towns. The 10th and 11th centuries saw a rise in importance of the aristocracy, and an increased number of new families entering it. The catastrophic losses in the latter 11th century again prompted a reorganization of the imperial administrative system, at the hands of the new

Komnenos dynasty The House of Komnenos ( Komnenoi; , , ), Latinized as Comnenus ( Comneni), was a Byzantine Greek noble family who ruled the Byzantine Empire in the 11th and 12th centuries. The first reigning member, Isaac I Komnenos, ruled from 1057 to 1059. T ...

: the older offices and titles fell gradually into disuse, while an array of new honorifics emerged, which signified primarily the closeness of their recipient's familial relationship to the Emperor. The Komnenian-led Empire, and later their Palaiologan successors, were based primarily on the landed aristocracy, keeping the governance of the state tightly controlled by a limited number of intermarrying aristocratic families; for instance in the 11th and 12th century, only 80 civil and 64 military noble families have been identified, a small number for so large a state. Finally, in the Palaiologan system as reported by

pseudo-Kodinos George Kodinos (), also Pseudo-Kodinos or Codinus, is the conventional name of an anonymous late 15th-century author of late Byzantine literature. Their attribution to him is only traditional, and is based on the fact that all three works come ...

, one can discern the accumulated nomenclature of centuries, with formerly high ranks having been devalued and others taking their place, and the old distinction between office and dignity having vanished.

Imperial titles

These were the highest titles, usually limited to members of the imperial family or to a few select foreign rulers whose friendship the Emperor desired.

Titles used by the emperors

* ''

'' (βασιλεύς), the

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

word for "

sovereign ''Sovereign'' is a title that can be applied to the highest leader in various categories. The word is borrowed from Old French , which is ultimately derived from the Latin">-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to ...

" — Originally referred to any king in the Hellenistic period or in any Greek-speaking area of the Roman Empire. It also referred to the Shahs of

Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

. Heraclius adopted it in 629, and it became the Greek word for "emperor." Heraclius also used the titles ''autokrator'' (αὐτοκράτωρ – "autocrat," "self-ruler") and ''

kyrios ''Kyrios'' or ''kurios'' () is a Greek word that is usually translated as "lord" or "master". It is used in the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible (Christian Old Testament) about 7000 times, in particular translating the name YHWH (t ...

'' (κύριος – "Lord"). The Byzantines reserved the term "''basileus''" among Christian rulers exclusively for the emperor in Constantinople, and referred to Western European kings as ''rēgas'', a Hellenized form of the Latin word '' rex'' ("king"). The feminine form ''basilissa'' referred to an

empress The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...

. Empresses were addressed as ''eusebestatē avgousta'' ("Most Pious Augusta"), and were also called ''kyria'' ("Lady") or ''despoina'' (the female form of "despotes", see below).

Primogeniture Primogeniture () is the right, by law or custom, of the firstborn Legitimacy (family law), legitimate child to inheritance, inherit all or most of their parent's estate (law), estate in preference to shared inheritance among all or some childre ...

, or even heredity, were not legally established in Byzantine imperial succession, because in principle the Roman Emperor was selected by common acclamation of the Senate, the People and the Army. This was rooted firmly in the Roman "republican" tradition, whereby hereditary kingship was rejected and the Emperor was nominally the convergence of several offices of the Republic onto one person. Multiple emperors, anxious to safeguard their firstborn son's right to the throne, had them crowned as co-emperors when they were still children, thus assuring that upon their own death the throne would not be even momentarily vacant. In such a case the need for an imperial selection never arose. In several cases, the new Emperor ascended the throne after marrying the previous Emperor's

widow A widow (female) or widower (male) is a person whose spouse has Death, died and has usually not remarried. The male form, "widower", is first attested in the 14th century, by the 19th century supplanting "widow" with reference to men. The adjecti ...

, or indeed after forcing the previous Emperor to abdicate and become a

monk A monk (; from , ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a man who is a member of a religious order and lives in a monastery. A monk usually lives his life in prayer and contemplation. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many reli ...

. Several emperors were also deposed because of perceived inadequacy, for example after a military defeat, and some were murdered. * '' Porphyrogennētos'' (πορφυρογέννητος), "

born in the purple Traditionally, born in the purple (sometimes "born to the purple") was a category of members of royal families born during the reign of their parent. This notion was later loosely expanded to include all children born of prominent or high-rankin ...

" — Derived from Hellenistic bureaucracy, emperors wanting to emphasize the legitimacy of their ascent to the throne appended this title to their names, meaning they were born to a reigning emperor in the delivery room of the imperial palace (called the ''Porphyra'' because it was paneled with slabs of the reddish-purple stone porphyry), and were therefore legitimate beyond any claim to the contrary. * '' Autokratōr'' (αὐτοκράτωρ), "self-ruler" — Originally equivalent to ''

imperator The title of ''imperator'' ( ) originally meant the rough equivalent of ''commander'' under the Roman Republic. Later, it became a part of the titulature of the Roman Emperors as their praenomen. The Roman emperors generally based their autho ...

'', and was used by the emperors. * ''Basileus Autokratōr'' () – A combination of titles reserved for the senior of several ruling co-emperors (συμβασιλεῖς, ''symbasileis''), and denoted the person who held substantive political power.

Titles used by the imperial family

* '' Despotēs'' (δεσπότης), "Lord" — Used by the emperors themselves since the time of

Justinian I Justinian I (, ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 527 to 565. His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovatio imperii'', or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was ...

, and was an honorific address for the sons of reigning emperors. Hellenistic rulers had used it extensively, and during Byzantine times often featured in coins, in lieu of ''Basileus''. In the 12th century,

Manuel I Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos (; 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180), Latinized as Comnenus, also called Porphyrogenitus (; " born in the purple"), was a Byzantine emperor of the 12th century who reigned over a crucial turning point in the history o ...

made it a separate title, the highest "awarded" title after the emperor. The first such ''despotēs'' was actually a foreigner, Bela III of Hungary, signifying that Hungary was considered a Byzantine tributary state. In later times, a despot could be the holder of a despotate; for example, the

Despotate of Morea The Despotate of the Morea () or Despotate of Mystras () was a province of the Byzantine Empire which existed between the mid-14th and mid-15th centuries. Its territory varied in size during its existence but eventually grew to include almost a ...

, centred at Mistra, was held by the heir to the Byzantine throne after 1261. The feminine form, ''despoina'', referred to a female despot or the wife of a despot, but it was also used to address the Empress. * ''

Sebastokratōr ''Sebastokrator'' (, ; ; ), was a senior court title in the late Byzantine Empire. It was also used by other rulers whose states bordered the Empire or were within its sphere of influence (Bulgarian Empire, Serbian Empire). The word is a compound ( ...

'' (σεβαστοκράτωρ), "Venerable Ruler" — Created by

Alexios I Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos (, – 15 August 1118), Latinization of names, Latinized as Alexius I Comnenus, was Byzantine Emperor, Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. After usurper, usurping the throne, he was faced with a collapsing empire and ...

as a combination of ''autokratōr'' and ''sebastos'' (see below). The first ''sebastokratōr'' was Alexios' brother Isaakios. It was essentially a meaningless title, which signified only a close relationship with the Emperor, but ranked immediately after the ''despotēs''. The feminine form was ''sebastokratorissa''. The first foreigner to be called ''sebastokratōr'' was Stefan Nemanjić of

Serbia , image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg , national_motto = , image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg , national_anthem = () , image_map = , map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...

, who was given the title in 1191. A Bulgarian aristocrat by the name

Kaloyan Kaloyan or Kalojan, also known as Ivan I, Ioannitsa or Johannitsa (; 1170 – October 1207), the Roman Slayer, was emperor or tsar of Bulgaria from 1196 to 1207. He was the younger brother of Theodor and Asen, who led the anti-Byzantine upr ...

also used the title. * '' Kaisar'' (), "Caesar" — Originally, as in the late Roman Empire, it was used for a subordinate co-emperor or the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. The office enjoyed extensive privileges, prestige and power. When Alexios I created ''sebastokratōr'', ''kaisar'' became third in importance, and fourth after Manuel I created ''despotēs''. The feminine form was ''kaisarissa''. However, it remained an office of importance, and was awarded to a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and was only rarely awarded to foreigners.

Justinian II Justinian II (; ; 668/69 – 4 November 711), nicknamed "the Slit-Nosed" (), was the last Byzantine emperor of the Heraclian dynasty, reigning from 685 to 695 and again from 705 to 711. Like his namesake, Justinian I, Justinian II was an ambitio ...

named Tervel, khan of the

Bulgars The Bulgars (also Bulghars, Bulgari, Bolgars, Bolghars, Bolgari, Proto-Bulgarians) were Turkic peoples, Turkic Nomad, semi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in the Pontic–Caspian steppe and the Volga region between the 5th and 7th centu ...

, ''kaisar'' in 705; the title then developed into the Slavic term

tsar Tsar (; also spelled ''czar'', ''tzar'', or ''csar''; ; ; sr-Cyrl-Latn, цар, car) is a title historically used by Slavic monarchs. The term is derived from the Latin word '' caesar'', which was intended to mean ''emperor'' in the Euro ...

or czar (from

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

through Bulgarian and then into Russian, Serbian etc.). Title was also awarded to George II of Georgia.

Andronikos II Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (; 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332), Latinization of names, Latinized as Andronicus II Palaeologus, reigned as Byzantine emperor from 1282 to 1328. His reign marked the beginning of the recently restored em ...

also named

Roger de Flor Roger de Flor (c. 1267 – 30 April 1305), also known as Ruggero/Ruggiero da Fiore or Rutger von Blum or Ruggero Flores, was an Italian military adventurer and condottiere active in Aragonese Sicily, Italy, and the Byzantine Empire. He was ...

, leader of the Catalan Grand Company, ''kaisar'' in 1304. * '' Nobelissimos'' (νωβελίσσιμος), from the Latin ''Nobilissimus'' ("most noble") — Originally a title given to close relatives of the Emperor, subordinate only to the ''kaisar''. During the

Komnenian period The Byzantine Empire was ruled by emperors of the Komnenos dynasty for a period of 104 years, from 1081 to about 1185. The ''Komnenian'' (also spelled ''Comnenian'') period comprises the reigns of five emperors, Alexios I, John II, Manuel I, ...

, the title was awarded to officials and foreign dignitaries, diluting its status. The title ''Prōtonobelissimos'' was created in its stead, until it too started to decline, only to be replaced by a further augmented form: ''Prōtonobelissimohypertatos''. By the late Palaiologan era, the former had vanished, while the latter was a provincial official. * '' Kouropalatēs'' (κουροπαλάτης), from the Latin ''cura palatii'', "charge of the palace" — First attested in the time of

, it was the official in charge of running the imperial palace. However, the authority and wealth deriving from this position, as well as the close proximity to the Emperor, meant that it accumulated prestige. It was awarded to important members of the imperial family, but from the 11th century onwards, it declined, and was usually awarded to the vassal rulers of

Armenia Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia. It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia (country), Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to ...

and

Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States Georgia may also refer to: People and fictional characters * Georgia (name), a list of pe ...

. * ''

Sebastos ( , ) was an honorific used by the ancient Greeks to render the Roman imperial title of . The female form of the title was (). It was revived as an honorific in the 11th century Byzantine Empire and came to form the basis of a new system of co ...

'' (σεβαστός), "August One" — This title is the literal Greek translation of the Latin term ''Augustus'' or ''Augoustos'', which was sometimes used by the emperors. As a separate title, it appeared in the latter half of the 11th century, and was extensively awarded by

to his brothers and relations. The female version of the title was ''sebastē''. The special title

Protosebastos The title of ''protosebastos'' (, ''prōtosébastos'', "first '' sebastos''") was a high Byzantine court title created by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. History Although the title first appears in a document of 1049, where Domenico I Contarini, the ...

("First Venerable One") was created for Hadrianos, Alexios' second brother, and awarded also to the

Doge of Venice The Doge of Venice ( ) – in Italian, was the doge or highest role of authority within the Republic of Venice (697–1797). The word derives from the Latin , meaning 'leader', and Venetian Italian dialect for 'duke', highest official of the ...

and the Sultan of Iconium. During the 12th century, it remained in use for the Emperor's and the ''sebastokratōrs children, and senior foreign dignitaries. However, the parallel processes of proliferation and devaluation of titles during the 12th century resulted in the creation of a bewildering array of variations, by using the prefixes ''pan'' ("all"), ''hyper'' ("above"), ''prōto'' ("first"): examples include Pansebastos and Panhypersebastos. Few of them actually survived past the 12th century, and all of them rapidly declined in importance.

Court titles from the 8th to 11th centuries

In the 8th–11th centuries, according to information provided by the ''

Taktikon Uspensky The ''Taktikon Uspensky'' or ''Uspenskij'' is the conventional name of a mid-9th century Greek list of the civil, military and ecclesiastical offices of the Byzantine Empire and their precedence at the imperial court. Nicolas Oikonomides Nikolao ...

'', the '' Klētorologion'' of Philotheos (899) and the writings of

Constantine Porphyrogennetos Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (; 17 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Byzantine emperor of the Macedonian dynasty, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe Karbonopsina, and ...

, below the imperial titles, the Byzantines distinguished two distinct categories of dignities (): the "dignities by award" (), which were purely honorific court titles and were conferred by the award of a symbol of rank, and the "dignities by proclamation" (), which were offices of the state and were conferred by imperial pronouncement. The former were further divided into three subcategories, depending on who was eligible for them: different sets of titles existed for the "Bearded Ones" (''βαρβάτοι'' from Latin ''barbati'', i.e. not eunuchs), the eunuchs () and women. State officials usually combined titles from both main categories, so that a high official would be both ''magistros'' (an "awarded" title) and ''logothetēs tou dromou'' (a "proclaimed" office).

Titles for the "bearded ones"

The "by award" titles for the "Bearded Ones" (non-eunuchs) were, in descending order of precedence: * ''Proedros'' (), "president" — Originally reserved for eunuchs (see below), it was opened up in the mid-11th century to "Bearded Ones" as well, especially military officials. * ''Magistros'' () – In the early Byzantine state, the ''magister officiorum'' was one of the most senior officials, but as his duties were gradually relegated to other officials, by the 8th century, only the title was left. It remained a high honour, and only rarely awarded until the 10th century. By the early 10th century, there were 12, the first in precedence among them bearing the title of ''prōtomagistros''. Thereafter the number of its holders was inflated, and the office vanished sometime in the 12th century. * ''Vestarches'' (), "head of the vestai" — Adopted in the latter half of the 10th century for high-ranking eunuchs, it began being awarded to "bearded" senior military officers and judicial officials of Constantinople around 1050, before disappearing in the early 12th century. * ''Vestes'' () – A senior honorific title, first attested under John I Tzimiskes. Awarded to both eunuchs and non-eunuchs, it survived until the early 12th century. The term is etymologically connected to the vestiarion, the imperial wardrobe, but despite earlier attempts to connect the vestai and the related title of vestarchēs, the head of the class of the vestai (see above), with the officials of the vestiarion (see below), no such relation appears to have existed. * ''Anthypatos'' (), "proconsul" — Originally the highest rank for provincial governors, it survived the creation of the Theme system, until, in the 9th century, it too became a purely honorific title. The variant ''prōtanthypatos'' was created in the 11th century to counter its decline in importance, but both disappeared by the end of the 12th century. * ''Patrikios'' (), "patrician" — Established as the highest title of nobility by Constantine the Great, it remained one of the highest dignities until its disappearance in the Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty, Komnenian period, awarded to high-ranking officials, including eunuchs, and foreign rulers. The spouses of patricians bore the title ''patrikia'' (not to be confused with ''zōstē patrikia'', see below). * ''Protospatharios, Prōtospatharios'' (), "first ''spatharios''" — As its name signifies, it originally was the title borne by the leader of the ''spatharioi'' ("swordbearers," the Emperor's bodyguards). For instance, in the 6th century Narses bore this title. It later became one of the most common high court titles, awarded to senior officials such as the ''logothetai'', the commanders of the imperial ''Tagma (military), tagmata'', or the ''strategoi'' in charge of a theme. The title of ''prōtospatharios'' also signified admittance to the Senate. The office survived until the Palaiologan period, but had declined to the 35th place of the hierarchy. * ''Dishypatos'' (), "twice consul" — A rare dignity, which originated possibly in the 8th century. * ''Spatharokandidatos'' () – a blend word of the titles spatharios and kandidatos, both of which were types of palace guards in the 4th–6th centuries. The earliest references to the title occur in early 8th century and the title is clearly attested only from the early 9th century on. Its distinctive badge (brabeion) was a golden chain (maniakion) worn around the chest.[1][3] * ''Spatharios'' (), "spatha-bearer" — As their name signifies, the ''spatharioi'' were initially a special corps of imperial guards (a ''spatha'' is a kind of sword). They performed specific duties inside the imperial palace. The title survived until the early 12th century. * ''Hypatos'' (), "Roman consul, consul" or "The supreme one" — As in the Roman Republic and Empire, the title was initially given each year to two distinguished citizens (the "ordinary consuls"), until

halted the practice due to the extraordinary expenditure it involved. It too became a purely honorific title. The title continued to be occasionally assumed by emperors on accession until the end of the 7th century. Honorary consuls however continued to be named, as attested by seals bearing the titles ''hypatos'' or ''apo hypatōn'' ("former consul"). The title was often conferred to the rulers of south Italian city-states. * ''Strator, Stratōr'' (), "Groom (horses)". * ''Kandidatos'' () – From the Latin '':wikt:candidatus#Latin, candidatus'', so named because of their white tunics. They were originally a select group of guards, drawn from the ''Scholae Palatinae''. The title disappeared in the Komnenian period. * ''basilikos mandator, Basilikos mandatōr'' (), "imperial or royal messenger". * ''Vestitor, Vestētōr'' () — Officers of the imperial wardrobe (Latin ''vestiarium''). * ''Silentiarios'' () — Originally a group of courtiers responsible for the maintenance of order (including respectful silence) in the palace. * ''Stratelates, Stratēlatēs'' (), Greek equivalent of the Latin ''magister militum'', and ''apoeparchōn'' ( or '), equivalent of the Latin ''ex praefectis'' — These two titles are listed as equal by Philotheos. Both were still high dignities in the 6th century, but were devalued afterward.

Titles for eunuchs

By descending order of precedence, the "by award" titles for the eunuchs were: * ''Proedros'' (), "president" — This was an entirely new rank introduced in the 960s by

and first awarded to Basil Lekapenos, the eunuch ''parakoimōmenos''. The holder of this dignity was also the president of the Senate, and the term ''proedros'' was often used to denote precedence, e.g. ''proedros'' of the ''notarioi'' for the ''protonotarios, prōtonotarios''. The title was widely awarded in the 11th century, when it was opened up to non-eunuchs, prompting the creation of the ''prōtoproedros'' to distinguish the most senior amongst its holders. It disappeared in the latter 12th century. * ''Vestarches'' () – Adopted in the latter half of the 10th century for high-ranking eunuchs, it was awarded to "bearded" senior military officers and judicial officials of Constantinople from ca. 1050 on. It disappeared in the early 12th century. * ''Patrikios'' – Same as for the "Bearded Ones". * ''Vestes'' () – Same as for the "Bearded Ones". * ''Praipositos'' () – From the Latin ''praepositus'', "placed before". * ''Protospatharios, Prōtospatharios'' – Same as for the "Bearded Ones". * ''Primikerios, Primikērios'' () – From the Latin ''primicerius'', "first in the list". * ''Ostiarios'' (''ὀστιάριος'') – From the Latin ''ostiarius'', "doorkeeper, usher". * ''Spatharokoubikoularios'' (), "sword-chamberlain" — A ceremonial sword-carrier assigned to the personal guard of the emperor. It later became a simple court rank. * ''Koubikoularios'' () – From the Latin ''cubicularius'', "chamberlain". * ''Nipsistiarios'' (), from Greek νίπτειν, "to wash hands") — The ''nipsistiarios'' was tasked with holding a gold, gem-encrusted water basin and assisting the emperor in performing the ritual Ritual purification, ablutions before he exited the imperial palace or performed ceremonies.

Titles for women

*''zoste patrikia, Zōstē patrikia'' (), "Girded ''patrikia''" — This title, reserved for women, was given to the empress' ladies of honour, and, according to Philotheos, ranked high in hierarchy, above even the ''magistros'' and ''proedros'' and just below the ''kouropalates''. The title is known from the early 9th century, and disappeared in the 11th century. Otherwise women bore the female forms of their husbands' titles.

Titles for foreigners

* ''Exousiastes'' (), "one who executes authority" — It was a style applied in the empire to some sovereign foreign rulers.

14th–15th century

''Book of Offices'' ranks the order of command below the emperor: # Despot (title), Despot # Sebastokrator # Caesar (title), Caesar # Megas domestikos # Megas doux # Protostrator, deputy of ''megas domestikos'' # # Megas primmikerios # Konostaulos, Megas konostablos # Megas droungarios # Hetaireia, Megas hetairearches # Epi tou stratou # Domestic of the Scholae # Megas droungarios, deputy of ''megas doux'' # Protospatharios # Megas archon, Megas arkhon, deputy of ''megas primmikerios'' # Megas tzaousios # Skouterios # Admiral, Amyriales, deputy of ''megas droungarios'' # Akolouthos, Megas akolouthos # Allagion, Arkhon tou Allagion, deputy of ''megas arkhon'' # Protallagator # Domestic of Walls of Constantinople, the Walls # Vestararius, Vestiarios, deputy of ''amyriales'' # Hetaireiarches, deputy of ''megas hetairearches'' # Stratopedarches of the Mourtatoi # Stratopedarches of the Tsakonia, Tzakones # Stratopedarches of ''one-horse cavalry men'' # Stratopedarches of the crossbowmen # Protokomes

Palace offices

* ''Parakoimomenos'' (literally, "one who sleeps nearby") — The High Chamberlain (office), Chamberlain who slept in the Emperor's bedchamber. Usually a eunuch, during the 9th–10th centuries the holders of this office often functioned as ''de facto'' chief ministers of the Empire. * ''Protovestiarios'' – Usually a minor relative of the emperor who took care of the emperor's personal wardrobe, especially on military campaigns. He was also sometimes responsible for other members of the imperial household, and the emperor's personal finances. The older term, from before the time of

, was ''Curopalates, curopalata'' (or ''kouropalates'' in Greek). This was derived from ''kourator'' (curator), an earlier official responsible for financial matters. The ''vestiarios'' was a subordinate official. The ''protovestiaria'' and ''vestiaria'' performed the same functions for the empress. * ''Papias (Byzantine office), Papias'' – Concierge of the imperial palaces, responsible for opening and closing the palace gates each day. * ''Pinkernes'' – Originally the emperor's cupbearer, later a senior honorific title. * ''Kanikleios'' – The keeper of the imperial inkstand, one of the senior officials of the imperial chancery. In the Komnenian and Palaiologan period, some of its holders were ''de facto'' chief ministers of the Empire. * ''Epi tes trapezes'' (ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς τραπέζης), "the one in charge of the table" — Official responsible for attending to the imperial table during banquets.

Military offices

Army

* ''Exarchos'' – The exarchs were governors of remote parts of the empire such as Italy or Africa. They enjoyed a greater degree of independence than other provincial governors, combining both civil and military authority, practically acting as

s. * ''Domestikos'' – The ''domestikoi'' were originally imperial guards, who later functioned as senior staff officers in the Late Roman army. In the Byzantine period, they were among the highest military offices, and included: ** ''Megas domestikos'', Grand Domestic – The overall commander of the army. ** ''Domestikos ton scholon, Domestikos tōn scholōn'', Domestic of the Schools – The commander of the ''Scholai'', originally a number of guards units, later a tagma (military), Tagma. This was a prestigious title, and by the late 9th century, its holder functioned as commander in chief of the army. In ca. 959, the post was divided, with one domestic for the East and one for the West. ** ''Domestikos tōn thematōn'', Domestic of the Themes – The commander and organizer of the military themes; there was one for the European themes and one for Asian themes. * ''Katepano, Katepanō'' – The governor of a greater area combining two or more themes, such as the Catepanate of Italy, Catepan of Italy, a title developed in the 9th century. * ''Monostrategos, Stratēgos'' – A military and later also civil commander of a theme, who often also had the title of ''Dux, doux''. The term is basically equivalent to "general" or "admiral", as it was used in both branches of service. * ''Tourmarches, Tourmarchēs'' – The commander of a '' tourma'', a military unit of battalion size. * ''Protostrator, Prōtostratōr'' – Initially the Emperor's Stable Master, stable master, under the Komnenian and Palaiologan emperors the term was used for the second-ranking commander of the army. * ''Stratopedarches, Stratopedarchēs'', Master of the Camp – In charge of making sure the army was stocked with food and arms. * ''Hoplitarchēs'' or ''archēgētēs'' – Commander of all infantry in an army. The title first appeared in the mid-10th century, when the infantry was reorganized and gained in importance. * ''Prōtokentarchos'' and ''kentarchos'' – Commanders of a smaller division of the army in the field. The name was derived from the Latin centurion. * ''Merarches, Merarchēs'' – Commander of a division ''(meros)'' of the army. Usually, each army was divided into two to three such commands. * ''Taxiarchēs'' or ''chiliarchēs'' – Commander of an infantry regiment (''taxiarchia'' or ''chiliarchia'') in the army. * ''Kavallarios'' – A title borrowed from the Latin ''caballarius'', it originally meant a cavalry soldier. During the Palaiologan period, it became a minor court title.

Navy

* '' Megas doux'', Megaduke or Grand Duke — The basic equivalent of the modern British Admiralty, Lord High Admiral. The office was created by

, when he combined the remnants of the imperial and thematic fleets into a single imperial fleet. By the end of the Palaiologos dynasty the megaduke was head of the government and bureaucracy, not just the navy. * ''Amirales'' — Greek version of "Admiral", introduced via Sicilian practice; an office founded in the late Palaiologan era for Western mercenary leaders and rarely held, the ''amirales'' was the deputy of the ''megas doux''. * ''Droungarios of the Fleet, Megas droungarios'' — Initially the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine navy; after the creation of the ''megas doux'' his lieutenant, in charge of the naval officers. * ''Droungarios'' – The title existed both in the army and the navy. In the navy of the 8th–11th centuries, a ''droungarios'' headed a fleet, either the central imperial fleet or one of the thematic fleets; in the army he headed a Droungos, a roughly battalion-sized grouping. * ''Komēs'' or ''droungarokomēs'' – The commander of a squadron of dromons. * ''Kentarchos'' or ''Navarch, nauarchos'' – The captain of a ship.

Other military titles

* ''Ethnarches, Ethnarchēs'' — The ''ethnarch'', commander of foreign troops. * ''Konostaulos'' — Greek form of Latin Comes stabuli "count of the stable" and various European feudal titles such as English "constable"; the chief of the Franks, Frankish mercenary, mercenaries. * ''Hetaireiarches, Hetaireiarchēs'' — The chief of the barbarian mercenaries, the ''Hetaireia'', successor to the ''Foederati''. Initially subdivided into Greater (''Megalē''), Middle (''Mesē'') and Little (''Mikra'') ''Hetaireia''. * ''Akolouthos'', "Acolyte" — The chief of the Varangian Guard from the Komnenian era onwards. * ''Manglavitai'' — A category of palace guards, armed with sword and cudgel (''manglavion''). Under the command of a ''Prōtomanglavitēs''. * ''Topoteretes, Topotērētēs'', "place-holder" or "lieutenant" — Found at various levels of the hierarchy, as deputies to commanders of the imperial ''tagmata'', deputy to a ''drungarios''.

Administrative offices

Emperor Theophilos Chronicle of John Skylitzes

Byzantine administrative nature was characterized by its versatility and unfixed duties in constant role change depending on a specific situation. The vast Byzantine bureaucracy had a number of titles, more varied than aristocratic and military titles. In Constantinople there were normally hundreds, if not thousands, of bureaucrats at any time. Like members of the Church and the military, they wore elaborately differentiated Byzantine dress, dress, often including huge hats. These are some of the more common ones, including non-nobles who also directly served the emperor. * ''Praetorian prefect'' — The Praetorian prefecture was set up by Augustus as the command of the imperial Guard in Rome. It was developed by

into a civil office, whereby a handful of Prefects each acted for the Emperor with responsibility for a cluster of dioceses and provinces. Each received regular reports on administration from the provincial governors, had treasuries of his own, and paid and supplied the army with food. He was also a supreme judge of appeal; in cases which were brought before his court from a lower tribunal there was no further appeal to the Emperor. He could issue, on his own authority, praetorian edicts, but they concerned only matters of detail. The office was abolished in the 7th century as part of wide-ranging civil and military reforms, and evolved into that of the ''domestikos''. * ''Basileopator, Basileopatōr'' (βασιλεοπάτωρ), "Father of the Emperor" — An exceptional title, granted only twice in Byzantine history. Although a ''basileopatōr'' was not the emperor's actual father, and the title did not necessarily denote any familial relationship at all, both awardees were the father-in-law of the emperor: Stylianos Zaoutzes under Leo VI the Wise and Romanos I Lekapenos briefly as regent for Constantine VII, before he raised himself to co-emperor. It ranked first among the "decreed" offices, and entailed wide-ranging administrative duties. * ''Protasekretis'', "First Secretary" — an earlier title for the head of the wikt:chancery, chancery, responsible for keeping official government records and head of the class of senior secretaries known as ''asekretis''. Other subordinates included the ''chartoularios,'' in charge of imperial documents; the ''kastrensios,'' a chamberlain in the palace; the ''mystikos,'' a private secretary; and the ''eidikos,'' a treasury official. * ''Protonotarios'' — Mainly used during the middle Byzantium (8th to 10th c.), also "First Secretary" but chiefly employed as chief financial and executive officer of either each thema/province, directly under its governor-general, or as imperial secretary in various government ministries in the capital. Charged with the provisioning of the thematic troops ahead of a campaign, the Protonotarios at times resembled a Commissar of the USSR, answering only to the emperor. During the late Byzantine era, the title was only encountered at the Palaiologan court, as the emperor's private secretary. In post-imperial times the title was linked to a higher administrative position with the Orthodox Church authorities. * ''Chartoularios tou vestiariou'', literally "keeper of documents for the Public Wardrobe" (see Vestiarion) — Responsible for minting gold and silver coins and equipping the fleet. * ''Logothete, Logothetēs'', "one who accounts, calculates or ratiocinates" (literally "one who sets the word") — A secretary in the extensive bureaucracy, who did various jobs depending on the exact position. In the middle and late

, it rose to become a senior Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy, administrative title, equivalent to a modern Minister (government), minister or secretary of state. Different offices of Logothetes included: ** ''Megas logothetes, Megas logothetēs'', Grand Logothete — the head of the logothetes, personally responsible for the legal system and treasury, somewhat like a chancellor in western Europe. ** ''Logothetes tou dromou, Logothetēs tou dromou'', Drome Logothete — the head of diplomacy and the mail, postal service. ** ''Logothetes ton oikeiakon, Logothetēs tōn oikeiakōn'', Logothete of the ''oikeiakoi'' — the exact functions of this office are unclear. ** ''Logothetes tou genikou, Logothetēs tou genikou'', General Logothete — responsible for taxation. Also acted as a secretary in later cases. ** ''Logothetes tou stratiotikou, Logothetēs tou stratiotikou'', Military Logothete — a civilian, in charge of distributing pay to the army. Logothetes originally had some influence on the emperor, but the posts eventually became honorary. In the later empire the Grand Logothete was replaced by the ''mesazon, mesazōn'' ("mediator"). Other administrators included: * Eparch of Constantinople — The urban prefect of Constantinople. * Quaestor sacri palatii, Quaestor — Originally an accountant or auditor, the office eventually became a judicial one for Constantinople. * ''Tribounos'', translation of Latin tribune — Responsible for maintenance of roads, monuments, and buildings in Constantinople (which were the responsibility of the Aedile, not the Tribunes in earlier Latin speaking times.) * ''Magister'' (''magister officiorum'', ''magister militum'', "maistor" in Greek) — An old Roman term, master of offices and master of the army; by the time of Leo III the Isaurian, Leo III, these had become honorary titles and were eventually discarded. * ''Sakellarios'', "treasurer; purse-bearer" — Under Heraclius, an honorary supervisor of the other palace administrators, logothetes, etc. Later, the chief financial comptroller of the Empire. * Praetor, Latin for "Man who goes before; first man." — One of the oldest of Roman titles, predating the Roman Republic, the title's use morphed considerably through the years. By the time of Theodosius I (379-395) it meant the leading municipal magistrate (like a modern Mayor) but from late 10th century until 1204, a civil governor of a theme. * ''Kephale (Byzantine Empire), Kephale'', "head" — The governor of a small province, usually a town and its surrounding territory, in the Palaiologan period * ''Horeiarios'' — In charge of distributing food from the state granaries. * ''

'' The ''protasekretis'', ''logothetes'', prefect, praetor, quaestor, ''magister'', and ''sakellarios'', among others, were members of the

Court life

At the peaceful height of Middle Byzantium, court life "passed in a sort of ballet", with precise ceremonies prescribed for every occasion, to show that "Imperial power could be exercised in harmony and order", and "the Empire could thus reflect the motion of the Universe as it was made by the Creator", according to the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who wrote a ''Book of Ceremonies'' describing in enormous detail the annual round of the Court. Special forms of dress for multiple classes of people on particular occasions are set down; at the name-day dinner for the Emperor or Empress various groups of high officials performed ceremonial "dances", one group wearing "a blue and white garment, with short sleeves, and gold bands, and rings on their ankles. In their hands they hold what are called ''phengia''". The second group do just the same, but wearing "a garment of green and red, split, with gold bands". These colours were the marks of the old chariot-racing factions, the four now merged to just the Blues and the Greens, and incorporated into the official hierarchy. As in the Versailles of Louis XIV, elaborate dress and court ritual probably were at least partly an attempt to smother and distract from political tensions. Eunuchs also participated in court life, typically serving as attendants to noble women or assisting the emperor when he took part in religious ceremonies or removed his crown. Eunuchs in the early Byzantine Empire were usually foreigners, and they were often seen as having a low status. This changed in the 10th century, when the social status of eunuchs increased and members of the educated Byzantine upper class began to become eunuchs. However, even by the time of Anna Comnena, with the Emperor away on military campaigns for much of the time, this way of life had changed considerably, and after the Crusader occupation it virtually vanished. A French visitor was shocked to see the Empress going to church far less well attended than the Queen of France would have been. The Imperial family abandoned the Great Palace for the relatively compact Palace of Blachernae.

References

Sources

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External links

Glossary
of Byzantium-related technical terms including official titles; ''Prosopography of the Byzantine World'' Project, King's College London {{DEFAULTSORT:Byzantine Bureaucracy Government of the Byzantine Empire Byzantine titles and offices Bureaucratic organization Aristocracy