Bunak Language, Bunak

The Bunak (also known as Bunaq, Buna', Bunake) people are an ethnic group that live in the mountainous region of central Timor, split between the political boundary between West Timor, Indonesia, particularly in Lamaknen District and East Timor. Their language is one of those on Timor which is not an Austronesian language, but rather a Papuan language, belonging to the Trans–New Guinea linguistic family. They are surrounded by groups which speak Malayo-Polynesian languages, like the Atoni and the Tetum.

According to ''Languages of the World'' (Voegelin and Voegelin, 1977), there were about 100,000 speakers of the language, split evenly between the two nations.

Settlement area

Today's settlement area of the Bunak people is located in the mountains of central Timor, ranging from the East Timorese town of Maliana in the north to the Timor Sea in the south, where both the Bunak and the Tetun communities often live side by side in coexistence. The Bunak people are isolated linguistically and socially, since the adjacent Kemak people to the north, the Mambai people in the east, the Tetun people in the south and west and the Atoni people speak to the west speak Malayo-Polynesian languages. Bunak is considered as being one of the Papuan languages, even though there are strong influences from the neighboring languages. The other Timorese Papuan languages are spoken in the east of Timor. Because of the language diversity in the region, the Bunak people are able to speak at least one of the Malayo-Polynesian languages fluently (in East Timor, Tetum is the lingua franca), while their surrounding neighbors rarely learn the Bunak language. In the hard-to-reach mountains, the townships of the Bunak people are relatively isolated from their neighboring communities. In East Timor, their area expands to the west of Manufahi District and in West Timor (Indonesia) towards the east of the Belu Regency and Malaka Regency.

The Bunak people of East Timor live mainly in places like Bobonaro and Lolotoe in the town of Bobonaro District, Tilomar Subdistrict and Zumalai in the municipality of Cova Lima District, Cassa in the municipality of Ainaro District, and Betano and Same in the municipality of Manufahi District. In the western border area of Cova Lima District, the Bunak people form a minority among the Tetun people. However, many townships are mixed. Between Fohoren mixed townships of Tetun and Bunak people are found. A total of 55,837 East Timorese speak the Bunak language as their native language.

In the eastern regions of West Timor, the Bunak people in Belu Regency form the majority in Lamaknen and South Lamaknen districts, and a minority in Riahat district in the southeast. Similarly, in the southeast of West Timor, the Tetun people form the majority. Individual Bunak settlements can be found among Tetun villages in the Rai Manuk district of Belu Regency, Kobalima, East Kobalima and East Malaka district of Malaka Regency. The westernmost Bunak settlements are Haroeh (Sanleo Administrative village, East Malaka district) and Welaus (North Lakekun Administrative village, Kobalima district). In the northwest are the isolated Bunak villages of Faturika, Renrua (both in Rai Manuk district) and Babulu (Kobalima district). To the east Bunak townships lie along the road to the Alas and South Alas Administrative village of East Kobalima district at the border with East Timor.

History and expansion

Mythical origins

According to legend, there was once a man named Mau Ipi Guloq who first domesticated the water buffalo. Together with his brother Asa Pharan, he one day caught two sows, which turned into women. His brother, however, claimed both women for himself, which eventually led Mau Ipi Guloq to part with him after a fight. One day a crow disturbed his buffalo, and so Mau Ipi Guloq shot a golden arrow at the bird with a golden blowpipe that he had borrowed from his brother. The crow flew with the arrow and Mau Ipi Guloq followed her into the underworld, where he met her sick ruler. Mau Ipi Guloq offered his help and discovered that his golden arrow was stuck in the ruler. He exchanged it with a bamboo arrow, which he soaked in his betel pouch. The ruler of the underworld was restored to health and gave Mau Ipi Guloq two oranges from a tree in the Underworld that turned into princesses. Asa Pharan asked his brother to exchange one of his wives for one of the princesses. But when he refused, Asan Paran threw Mau Ipi Guloq into a ravine and killed him. However, Mau Ipi Guloq's wives found him and brought him back to life by using an oil from the Underworld. He returned home healthy and brought back to his youth again; his brother also asked for a bath in the oil in order to be young again. Mau Ipi Guloq's wives heated the oil bath so much that Asa Pharan was scalded and died. Mau Ipi Guloq also married his brother's wives and became one of the main ancestors of the Bunak people.

Overview

Just as with any other Timorese ethnic group, there was originally no written tradition. All history and traditions were passed in by word of mouth until the coming of European colonization. Rich traditions do exist among the Timorese, especially the Bunak people. These narrative traditions are recited with repetition, rhyme and alliteration. This helps the performer remember the verses.

In general, it is assumed that Melanesians migrated to Timor around 3000 BC, to be partially displaced by later Proto-Malayo-Polynesian groups from 2500 BC. Some claim that the Fataluku people might have reached Timor from the east only after the Austronesians and that they were repressed or assimilated. There has been speculation of such a scenario even with the Makasae language. In the case of the Bunak people, however, there are only place names of Papuan linguistic origin in the homeland country, thus the Bunak people must have settled here before the Austronesians.

Moreover, as the Bunak people have common non-Austronesian vocabulary with the Fataluku language, Makasae language and Makalero language, the existence of a Proto-Timor-Papuan language, from which all the Papuan languages of Timor originate, had been postulated.

The present area of the Bunak people is the result of different migrations. Due to population growth, the Bunak people were forced to expand again and again to find new arable land. External influences also led to groups having to flee as well as forced resettlement.

Portuguese colonization began on Timor Island in the 16th century, while in the middle of the 18th century the Dutch extended their influence into the area of the Bunak people, so that it was divided into two sections, comprising a Western Dutch and an Eastern Portuguese sphere of interest. However, European rule remained predominantly nominal, with rule exercised by local traditional rulers. It was only in the early 20th century that the two colonial powers succeeded in building up a real colonial administration.

In the Second World War the Japanese occupied Timor from 1942 to 1945, ruling it as a single entity. There was fighting with Australian guerrilla commandos, with the aid of some Portuguese as well as many Timorese.

After the war, the west became part of Indonesia, while the east remained a Portuguese colony until 1975. When the Portuguese departed from Timor, the Indonesians first occupied the border region of East Timor. Nine days after the declaration of the Independence of East Timor, a full invasion followed, and a 24 year long struggle for independence. The civilian population fled the invasion into the wilderness, to only later have to gradually surrender to the invaders; it was not until 1979 that the last of the Bunak people living in the forests were forced to capitulate.

It was not until 1999 that Indonesia withdrew, and after three years of administration by the United Nations in East Timor did East Timir finally regain independence. however, the Bunak people and their homeland continued to be divided by the colonial border.

Since independence, more and more people from rural areas have moved to the capital, Dili, including many of the Bunak people. Many took up residence according to their geographical origin. Bunak speakers live in the west of the city in Comoro, Fatuhada and Bairro Pite, as well as in the city center in Suco Gricenfor, Acadiru Hun, Suco Santa Cruz and Suco Lahane Oriental. In 2006 there was unrest in the county, started mainly by East Timorese from Firaku and Kaladi. Bunak people belonging to the Kaladi were also involved in the conflict. In Dili, for example, there was confrontation between the Bunak people from Bobonaro District and Ermera District and Makasae people from Baucau District and Viqueque District for dominance in the market place.

Heartland

The heartland of the Bunak is located in the middle east of the East Timorese area of Bobonaro and north east of the municipality of Cova Lima District. Here is the only place where place names of Bunak origin are to be found, while in other areas inhabited by the Bunak there are also place names of Austronesian origin. Bunak settlements in bordering territories only have Austronesian place names. This indicates that the original homeland of the Bunak people lies in the center of the territory where the Bunak now cover.

In the Bunak language there are influences from Kemak and somewhat less from Mambai. From this we can conclude that the Bunak also had contact with the Mambai people and Kemak people in the past.

In the northeast, the Bunak people refer to themselves and their language as Gaiq or Gaeq, which is likely to derived from ''Mgai''; the Kemak name for the Bunak people. According to Bunak oral traditions, they formerly belonged to the former kingdom of Likusa (Likosa), which once existed in the region of the Tokodede and Kemak people, which explains the adoption of anAustronesian name of the Bunak people. as well as the strong linguistic influence of the Kemak language on the Bunak language. In Marobo (Atsabe Administrative Post) and Suco Obulo, the Kemak people intermingled with the Bunak people, leading to cultural differences between the Kemak people on this side compared to the neighbouring Kemak people of Atsabe.

Between Maliana, Lamaknen and Maucatar

According to Bunak folk history in the northwest, they originally migrated from the east to the region south of Maliana and the present Indonesian districts of Lamaknen and Raihat. There they mingled peacefully with the local peoples, these being, according to source, the local Tetun or Atoin Meto people. The existing village names of Austronesian origin support these accounts. Legends of the Bunak people from the upper Lamaknen district, however, report that their forefathers had either expelled or killed the Melus (Timor) people when they came into the region. Research so far has not clarified whether the Melus were Tetun, Atoin Meto or another people. Investigations of the Bunak dialects suggest that the Bunak from the northeast and southwest met and settled in Lamaknen district. According to oral tradition, the region around Lamaknen district was an autonomous region of the Wehali Tetun people, bordering on the kingdom of Likusa. This influence can still be seen today as the Lamaknen dialect uses loanwords for ritual formulations from Tetum language.

In 1860 the region around Maucatar became a Dutch enclave, while the surrounding area was claimed by Portugal. The borders of the enclave coincided with the borders of the local Bunak kingdoms. The area now belongs to the Sucos of Holpilat, Taroman, Fatululic, Dato Tolu and Lactos. The territory of the then enclave of Maucatar is still inhabited by a large majority of Bunak. However, there are also Tetun place names. Therefore, it is assumed that the Bunak immigrated to this region and largely replaced the local Tetun, who today form a small minority.

In 1897 there were several battles around Lamaknen District areas between the northeastern kingdom of Lamaquitos (Lamakhitu) and the southern Lakmaras kingdom, which had as coalition partners the Bunak in the southwest. The end of this last traditional conflict between the indigenous kingdoms of the region has meant that the Bunak people in Lamaknen district have since gradually left their fortified villages on high ground and built houses close to water supplies. Spread out over a larger area, the clan members now only come to their clan houses to perform ceremonies.

As a result of the various territorial shifts between the Bunak kingdoms, however, the border between the two colonial powers of Portugal and the Netherlands remained a long-standing issue and was the subject of lengthy negotiations. In Lakmaras District, there were several deaths in the same year in clashes between Dutch and Portuguese troops. The Dutch claim to Maucatar was justified by Lakmaras sovereignty, which created a link to Maucatar. Meanwhile, Lakmaras had become subject to the kingdom of Lamaquitos, and this was part of the Portuguese sphere of power established by the Treaty of Lisbon in 1859. Maucatar would have failed as a Portugal enclave, according to the agreements that were already in place. On the other hand, the state of Tahakay (Tahakai, Tafakay, Takay; now in southern Lamaknen district) belonging to Portugal had subsequently become part of Lamaknen district. Tahakay, however, belonged to the Portuguese sphere of influence, while Lamaknen district belonged to the Dutch. Portugal opposed this loss in the negotiations of 1902, and therefore demanded the entire Dutch territories in the center of Timor. A compromise was reached with The Hague Convention of October 1, 1904: Portugal was to receive Maucatar, in exchange for the Portuguese enclave Noimuti in West Timor, and the border areas of Tahakay, Tamira Ailala and Tamiru Ailala of Lamaknen District. Portugal respected the treaty until 1909, but then there was a dispute over the border crossing on the eastern border of Oecusse District. In 1910, the Netherlands took advantage of the overthrow of the Portuguese monarchy in order to regain Lakmaras with the help of European and Javanese troops.

In February 1911, following the 1904 Convention, Portugal tried to occupy Maucatar. However, in June, it faced a superior Dutch armed force from the Ambonese infantry, supported by European soldiers. On June 11, Portuguese troops occupied the territory of Lakmaras, but on July 18, Dutch and Javanese troops regained it. After the Dutch victory, the Portuguese then sought a peaceful agreement. They soon fell into trouble with a rebellion in the Manufahi District, which brought them to the negotiating table. On August 17, 1916, a treaty was signed in The Hague, which largely defined the borders between East and West Timor. On 21 November the agreed areas were exchanged. Noimuti, Maubisse, Tahakay and Taffliroe fell to the Netherlands, and Maucatar to Portugal, causing panic. Before the transfer to the Portuguese, 5,000 locals, mostly Bunaks, destroyed their fields and moved to West Timor. The population in Tamira Ailala would rather have stayed with Portugal, while in Tahakay the Dutch were welcomed.

It was only a few generations ago that Bunak established villages in the lowlands around Maliana, such as Tapo-Memo. Even today these villages still retain ritual relations with their native villages in the highlands.

After the Second World War, Bunak people from Lebos fled from the then Portuguese Timor to Lamaknen district. They were afraid of reprisals after collaborating with the Japanese during the Battle of Timor. The then ruler of Lamaknen, the Loroh (king) Alfonsus Andreas Bere Tallo, welcomed the arrival of the refugees, who founded the village of Lakus (in today's Desa Kewar).

As a result of the civil war between Augustine and UDT, refugees from East Timorese villages came to the border from August 1975 onwards. Among them were many Bunak people. They came from Odomau, Holpilat, Lela, Aitoun, Holsa, Memo and Raifun. At the end of August, the conflict crossed over to the other side of the border. Villages were destroyed, such as Henes in the Desa on the west side of the same name, which has not been rebuilt. The invasion of East Timor by Indonesia, which took place later in the following months, also caused more Bunak people to flee from their villages to escape the invasion. Some crossed the border, others sought shelter in the forests, where some of the people spent up to three years in hiding. Village communities were thus torn apart and resettled in different places until 1999. A similar fate befell the village of Abis in Lamaknen District. Although the inhabitants returned to their village after their escape in 1975, the village was burned down near the East Timor border. In 1999, other refugees also came to Lamaknen district from East Timor after the independence of East Timor and remain there to this day. There was fighting with the locals and in the process fields, huts and streets were destroyed.

Southwest of Cova Lima

Recently, Bunak people migrated to the southwest of Cova Lima District in two independent waves. The earlier group lives in slightly higher areas of Suco Beiseuc (formerly known as Foholulik, 2010: 30% Bunak) and Suco Lalawa (35% Bunak). They came in a large stream of refugees from the community of Bobonaro, when they fled in the Second World War before the arrival of the Japanese army. Guerrilla units of the Allies had operated against the Japanese of Lolotoe and the village of Bobonaro, and the Japanese troops carried out reprisals against the civilian population in Bobonaro in August 1942. This probably cost several tens of thousands of people their lives and drove others to flee.

The second wave are those Bunak people who settled in the lowlands between Suai and the border. They were forcibly resettled from northern Sucos in the Cova Lima District, such as Fatululic and Taroman, by the Indonesian occupation forces. The official reason was a development program for rice cultivation. However, in 1977, many East Timor peoples were forcibly removed from remote areas in order to cut support for Fretilin. The Indonesian army in East Timor set up so-called "Internment Camps", in which hundreds of thousands of civilians were interred.

Malaka and southern Belu

The Bunak of Namfalus village ( Desa Rainawe, Kobalima District) originated in the same exodus of Bunak people in South Fohorem

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