The buddy film is a

subgenre Genre () is any style or form of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other for ...

adventure An adventure is an exciting experience or undertaking that is typically bold, sometimes risky. Adventures may be activities with danger such as traveling, exploring, skydiving, mountain climbing, scuba diving, river rafting, or other extreme spo ...

and

comedy film The comedy film is a film genre that emphasizes humor. These films are designed to amuse audiences and make them laugh. Films in this genre typically have a happy ending, with dark comedy being an exception to this rule. Comedy is one of the o ...

in which two people go on an adventure, mission, or road trip. The two typically are males with contrasting personalities. The contrast is sometimes accentuated by an ethnic difference between the two. The buddy film is commonplace in Western cinema; unlike some other film genres, it endured through the 20th century with different pairings and different themes.

Male–male relationships

A buddy film portrays the pairing of two people, often the same sex, frequently men. A friendship between the two people is the key relationship in a buddy film. The two people often come from different backgrounds or have different personalities, and they tend to misunderstand one another. Through the events of the buddy film, they gain a stronger friendship and mutual respect. Buddy films often deal with crises of

masculinity Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as Social construction of gender, socially constructed, and there i ...

. ''American Masculinities: A Historical Encyclopedia'' explains, " uddy filmsoffer male movie-going audiences an opportunity to indulge in a form of male bonding and behavior usually discouraged by social constraints." Ira Konigsberg wrote in ''The Complete Film Dictionary'', "Such films extol the virtues of male comradeship and relegate male–female relationships to a subsidiary position."

Female–female friendships

A female buddy film is similar to a buddy film except that the main characters are women, and it is centered on their situation. The cast may be mainly female depending on the plot. There are far fewer female buddy films than there are male buddy films; however, notable examples include 1991's '' Thelma and Louise'', which had a popular impact similar to ''

Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid ''Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid'' is a 1969 American Western (genre), Western buddy film directed by George Roy Hill and written by William Goldman. Based loosely on fact, the film tells the story of Wild West outlaws Robert LeRoy Parker, k ...

'' and paved the way for onscreen female friendships such as those in '' Waiting to Exhale,'' '' Walking and Talking,'' and ''Fried Green Tomatoes''.

Hybrid genres

Buddy films are often hybridized with other film genres, such as

road movie A road movie is a film genre, genre of film in which the main characters leave home on a road trip, typically altering the perspective from their everyday lives. Road movies often depict travel in the hinterlands, with the films exploring the the ...

Western Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US *Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that id ...

s, comedies, and

action film The action film is a film genre that predominantly features chase sequences, fights, shootouts, explosions, and stunt work. The specifics of what constitutes an action film has been in scholarly debate since the 1980s. While some scholars such as D ...

s featuring police. The "threats to hemasculinity" of the male–male relationship depend on the genre: women in comedies, the law in films about outlaw buddies, and criminals in action films about cop buddies.

History

Pre-1930s

The buddy film is more common to cinema in the United States than cinema in other

Western countries The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to various nations and states in Western Europe, Northern America, and Australasia; with some debate as to whether those in Eastern Europe and Latin America also constitute the West. ...

, which tend to focus on male–female romantic relationships or an individual male hero. Film historian David Thomson observes that buddy films are rare among British and French films, "You just wouldn't see three Englishmen behave the way American men do, who are truly happiest when they are together with other men." Portrayal of

male bonding In ethology and social science, male bonding or male friendship is the formation of close personal relationships, and patterns of friendship or cooperation between males. Male bonding is a form of homosociality, or social connection between indiv ...

in the United States traces back to 19th-century author

Mark Twain Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), known by the pen name Mark Twain, was an American writer, humorist, and essayist. He was praised as the "greatest humorist the United States has produced," with William Fau ...

's characters Huck Finn and Tom Sawyer as a "good boy–bad boy combo", as well as Huck Finn and the slave Jim in Twain's 1884 novel ''

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' is a picaresque novel by American author Mark Twain that was first published in the United Kingdom in December 1884 and in the United States in February 1885. Commonly named among the Great American Novels, th ...

''.

Vaudeville Vaudeville (; ) is a theatrical genre of variety entertainment which began in France in the middle of the 19th century. A ''vaudeville'' was originally a comedy without psychological or moral intentions, based on a comical situation: a drama ...

acts in early 20th-century United States often featured male pairs. Another example could be 1881's ''

The Prince and the Pauper ''The Prince and the Pauper'' is a novel by American author Mark Twain. It was first published in 1881 in Canada, before its 1882 publication in the United States. The novel represents Twain's first attempt at historical fiction. The plot conce ...

'' with Prince Edward and Miles Hendon.

1930s to 1960s: Comedy duos

From the 1930s to the 1960s in the United States, male comedy duos often appeared in buddy films.

Laurel and Hardy Laurel and Hardy were a British-American double act, comedy duo during the early Classical Hollywood cinema, Classical Hollywood era of American cinema, consisting of Englishman Stan Laurel (1890–1965) and American Oliver Hardy (1892–1957) ...

and Abbott and Costello were popular in the 1930s and 1940s. Laurel and Hardy starred in films like ''

Sons of the Desert ''Sons of the Desert'' is a 1933 American pre-Code comedy film starring Laurel and Hardy. Directed by William A. Seiter, it was released in the United States on December 29, 1933. In the United Kingdom, the film was originally released under ...

'' (1933), and Abbott and Costello starred in films like '' Buck Privates'' (1941). Another comedy duo was Wheeler & Woolsey, who starred in '' Half Shot at Sunrise'' (1930).

Bing Crosby Harry Lillis "Bing" Crosby Jr. (May 3, 1903 – October 14, 1977) was an American singer, comedian, entertainer and actor. The first multimedia star, he was one of the most popular and influential musical artists of the 20th century worldwi ...

and

Bob Hope Leslie Townes "Bob" Hope (May 29, 1903 – July 27, 2003) was an American comedian, actor, entertainer and producer with a career that spanned nearly 80 years and achievements in vaudeville, network radio, television, and USO Tours. He appeared ...

starred together in the 1940

Paramount Pictures Paramount Pictures Corporation, commonly known as Paramount Pictures or simply Paramount, is an American film production company, production and Distribution (marketing), distribution company and the flagship namesake subsidiary of Paramount ...

film ''

Road to Singapore ''Road to Singapore'' is a 1940 American musical film, musical comedy film directed by Victor Schertzinger and starring Bing Crosby, Dorothy Lamour and Bob Hope. Based on a story by Harry Hervey, the film is about two playboys trying to avoid ...

'', which led to other 1940s buddy films that the ''

Los Angeles Times The ''Los Angeles Times'' is an American Newspaper#Daily, daily newspaper that began publishing in Los Angeles, California, in 1881. Based in the Greater Los Angeles city of El Segundo, California, El Segundo since 2018, it is the List of new ...

'' described as "escapist wartime fantasies". Hope and Crosby starred together in a series of films that lasted to the 1960s.

Dean Martin Dean Martin (born Dino Paul Crocetti; June 7, 1917 – December 25, 1995) was an American singer, actor, and comedian. Nicknamed the "Honorific nicknames in popular music, King of Cool", he is regarded as one of the most popular entertainers of ...

and

Jerry Lewis Jerry Lewis (born Joseph Levitch; March 16, 1926 – August 20, 2017) was an American comedian, actor, singer, filmmaker and humanitarian, with a career spanning seven decades in film, stage, television and radio. Famously nicknamed as "Th ...

were a popular duo in the 1950s, and Walter Matthau and

Jack Lemmon John Uhler Lemmon III (February 8, 1925 – June 27, 2001) was an American actor. Considered proficient in both dramatic and comic roles, he was known for his anxious, middle-class everyman screen persona in comedy-drama films. He received num ...

were famous in the 1960s, starring in the hit 1968 film '' The Odd Couple''. A major departure from the more comic buddy films of the era was

Akira Kurosawa was a Japanese filmmaker who List of works by Akira Kurosawa, directed 30 feature films in a career spanning six decades. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential filmmakers in the History of film, history of cinema ...

's 1949 Japanese film '' Stray Dog'', starring Toshirō Mifune and Takashi Shimura. It was a more serious

police procedural The police procedural, police show, or police crime drama is a subgenre of procedural drama and detective fiction that emphasises the investigative procedure of police officers, police detectives, or law enforcement agency, law enforcement agencies ...

film noir Film noir (; ) is a style of Cinema of the United States, Hollywood Crime film, crime dramas that emphasizes cynicism (contemporary), cynical attitudes and motivations. The 1940s and 1950s are generally regarded as the "classic period" of Ameri ...

that served as a precursor to the

buddy cop film Buddy cop is a film and television genre with plots involving two people of very different and conflicting personalities who are forced to work together to solve a crime and/or defeat criminals, sometimes learning from each other in the process. ...

genre.

1960s to 1970s: Responses to feminism and society

Throughout the 1960s and the 1970s, the

feminist movement The feminist movement, also known as the women's movement, refers to a series of social movements and political campaigns for Radical politics, radical and Liberalism, liberal reforms on women's issues created by inequality between men and wom ...

and "a widespread questioning" of social

institution An institution is a humanly devised structure of rules and norms that shape and constrain social behavior. All definitions of institutions generally entail that there is a level of persistence and continuity. Laws, rules, social conventions and ...

s influenced buddy films. The films explored male friendships more dramatically and encouraged

individualism Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, and social outlook that emphasizes the intrinsic worth of the individual. Individualists promote realizing one's goals and desires, valuing independence and self-reliance, and a ...

—particularly to be free from women and society. Critics such as

Molly Haskell Molly Clark Haskell (born September 29, 1939)Aitken, Ian, ed. (2006)''Encyclopedia of Documentary Film, Volume 2'' New York: Routledge. p. 541. . is an American film critic and author. She contributed to '' The Village Voice''—first as a ...

and Robin Wood saw the decades' films as "a backlash from the feminist movement." Philippa Gates wrote: "To punish women for their desire for equality, the buddy film pushes them out of the center of the narrative ... By making both protagonists men, the central issue of the film becomes the growth and development of their friendship. Women as potential love interests are thus eliminated from the narrative space." The buddy films of these decades were also hybridized with

s. The decades' buddy films included ''

'' (1969), '' Easy Rider'' (1969), ''

Midnight Cowboy ''Midnight Cowboy'' is a 1969 American drama film directed by John Schlesinger, adapted by Waldo Salt from the 1965 novel by James Leo Herlihy. The film stars Dustin Hoffman and Jon Voight, with supporting roles played by Sylvia Miles, J ...

'' (1969), '' Thunderbolt and Lightfoot'' (1974), and ''

Dog Day Afternoon ''Dog Day Afternoon'' is a 1975 American biographical crime drama film directed by Sidney Lumet and produced by Martin Bregman and Martin Elfand. The film stars Al Pacino, John Cazale, James Broderick and Charles Durning. The screenplay ...

'' (1975). The ''

'' said films like '' Scarecrow'' (1973) and '' All the President's Men'' (1976) reflected the "paranoia and alienation" felt in the era. Beyond Hollywood, a notable buddy road movie of that era was the

Bollywood Hindi cinema, popularly known as Bollywood and formerly as Bombay cinema, is primarily produced in Mumbai. The popular term Bollywood is a portmanteau of "Bombay" (former name of Mumbai) and "Cinema of the United States, Hollywood". The in ...

" Curry Western" film '' Sholay'' (1975), which was the highest-grossing Indian film of all time.

Biracial The term multiracial people refers to people who are mixed with two or more races and the term multi-ethnic people refers to people who are of more than one ethnicities. A variety of terms have been used both historically and presently for mul ...

buddy films emerged in the 1970s and 1980s;

Richard Pryor Richard Franklin Lennox Thomas Pryor Sr. (December 1, 1940 – December 10, 2005) was an American stand-up comedian and actor. Known for reaching a broad audience with his trenchant observations and storytelling style, he is widely regarded ...

and

Gene Wilder Gene Wilder (born Jerome Silberman; June 11, 1933 – August 29, 2016) was an American actor, comedian, writer, and filmmaker. He was mainly known for his comedic roles, including his portrayal of Willy Wonka in ''Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Fa ...

initiated the movement with '' Silver Streak'' (1976) and '' Stir Crazy'' (1980).

Eddie Murphy Edward Regan Murphy (born April 3, 1961) is an American actor, comedian, and singer. He had his breakthrough as a standup comic before gaining stardom for his film roles; he is widely recognized as one of the greatest comedians of all time. H ...

was a key actor in biracial buddy films, starring in '' 48 Hours'' (1982) with

Nick Nolte Nicholas King Nolte (; born February 8, 1941) is an American actor. Known for his leading man roles in both dramas and romances, he has received a Golden Globe Award as well as nominations for three Academy Awards and a Primetime Emmy Award. Nol ...

and in '' Trading Places'' (1983) with

Dan Aykroyd Daniel Edward Aykroyd ( ; born July 1, 1952) is a Canadian actor, comedian, screenwriter, and producer. Aykroyd was a writer and an original member of the "Not Ready for Prime Time Players" cast on the NBC sketch comedy series ''Saturday Nigh ...

. Throughout the 1980s, the individual roles in biracial buddy films are reversed. The "racial other... is too civilized" while the white man "is equipped for survival in... the urban landscape".

1980s: Action films and biracial pairings

The 1980s was a popular decade for

s, and the genre that "blended masculinity, heroism, and patriotism into an idealized image" was hybridized with buddy films. Following the Civil Rights Movement, black advancement was also reflected in more common biracial pairings. In this decade, the buddy cop film took the place of the buddy road movie. Action films with biracial pairings include the 1982 film '' 48 Hours'' starring

and

and the 1987 film ''

Lethal Weapon ''Lethal Weapon'' is a 1987 American action film directed by Richard Donner and written by Shane Black. It stars Mel Gibson and Danny Glover alongside Gary Busey, Tom Atkins, Darlene Love, and Mitchell Ryan. In ''Lethal Weapon'', a pai ...

'' starring

Mel Gibson Mel Columcille Gerard Gibson (born January 3, 1956) is an American actor and filmmaker. The recipient of List of awards and nominations received by Mel Gibson, multiple accolades, he is known for directing historical films as well for his act ...

and

Danny Glover Danny Glover ( ; born July 22, 1946) is an American actor, producer, and political activist. Over his career he has received List of awards and nominations received by Danny Glover, numerous accolades including the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian A ...

. Another combination of the action film and the buddy film in the 1980s and another biracial reversal was the 1988 film ''

Die Hard ''Die Hard'' is a 1988 American action film directed by John McTiernan and written by Jeb Stuart (writer), Jeb Stuart and Steven E. de Souza, based on the 1979 novel ''Nothing Lasts Forever (Thorp novel), Nothing Lasts Forever'' by Roderick ...

'' in which

Bruce Willis Walter Bruce Willis (born March 19, 1955) is a retired American actor. He achieved fame with a leading role on the comedy-drama series ''Moonlighting (TV series), Moonlighting'' (1985–1989) and has appeared in over one hundred films, gaining ...

's heroic character John McClane is supported by the black cop Al (played by Reginald VelJohnson).

1990s: New approaches to the genre

In the early 1990s, the masculine figure in films became more sensitive, and some buddy films "contemplated a masculinity that required sensitive relations between men". Such films included ''

The Fisher King ''The Fisher King'' is a 1991 American fantasy comedy drama film written by Richard LaGravenese and directed by Terry Gilliam. Starring Robin Williams and Jeff Bridges, with Mercedes Ruehl, Amanda Plummer and Michael Jeter, the film tells th ...

'' (1991) and ''

The Shawshank Redemption ''The Shawshank Redemption'' is a 1994 American Prison film, prison Drama (film and television), drama film written and directed by Frank Darabont, based on the 1982 Stephen King novella ''Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption''. The film t ...

'' (1994). The decade also saw new approaches to the genre. The 1991 film ''

Thelma & Louise ''Thelma & Louise'' is a 1991 American crime drama film directed by Ridley Scott and written by Callie Khouri. The film stars Susan Sarandon and Geena Davis as Louise and Thelma, two friends who embark on a road trip that ends up in unforese ...

'' featured a female pairing of Geena Davis and Susan Sarandon, and the 1993 film '' The Pelican Brief'' featured a male–female platonic pairing of Julia Roberts and

Denzel Washington Denzel Hayes Washington Jr. (born December 28, 1954) is an American actor, producer, and director. Known for his dramatic roles Denzel Washington on screen and stage, on stage and screen, Washington has received List of awards and nominations ...

. The 1998 film ''

Rush Hour A rush hour (American English, British English) or peak hour (Australian English, Indian English) is a part of the day during which traffic congestion on roads and crowding on public transport is at its highest. Normally, this happens twice e ...

'' featured a nonwhite male pairing of

Jackie Chan Fang Shilong (born Chan Kong-sang; 7 April 1954), known professionally as Jackie Chan,; is a Hong Kong actor and filmmaker, known for his slapstick, acrobatic fighting style, comic timing, and innovative stunts, which he typically perf ...

and Chris Tucker, which the ''

'' said symbolized

color blindness Color blindness, color vision deficiency (CVD) or color deficiency is the decreased ability to color vision, see color or differences in color. The severity of color blindness ranges from mostly unnoticeable to full absence of color percept ...

in American cinema. Biracial buddy films continued in the 1990s and 2000s and were combined with different genres, such as '' White Men Can't Jump'' (1992), '' Bulletproof'' (1996), '' Gridlock'd'' (1997), ''

National Security National security, or national defence (national defense in American English), is the security and Defence (military), defence of a sovereign state, including its Citizenship, citizens, economy, and institutions, which is regarded as a duty of ...

'' (2003) and '' The Bucket List'' (2007). Also in the 1990s and 2000s, John Woo's Hollywood films imported the ''

wuxia ( , literally "martial arts and chivalry") is a genre of Chinese literature, Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists in ancient China. Although is traditionally a form of historical fantasy literature, its popularity ha ...

'' "themes of loyalty and trust" from his previous Hong Kong-produced films to create different takes on male bonding. Kin–Yan Szeto writes in ''The Martial Arts Cinema of the Chinese Diaspora'', " nhis third Hollywood film, ''

Face/Off ''Face/Off'' is a 1997 American science fiction action film directed by John Woo, from a screenplay by Mike Werb and Michael Colleary. It stars John Travolta as an FBI agent and Nicolas Cage as a terrorist, who undergo an experimental surg ...

''... Woo manages to deploy and politicize themes of homosociality with the possibility of contesting hegemonic masculinity that consolidates kinship and family." Woo's 2001 World War II film '' Windtalkers'' depicted two buddy pairs, with each pair indicating inequality through ethnicity (white American soldiers protecting Navajo code talkers but ready to kill the talkers to protect the code). Szeto explains, "Woo uses the twin buddy pairs to explore the shifting meanings and multiple possibilities in interracial bonding, rather than simply recuperating and empowering dominant positions for white heterosexual men."

Selected filmography

Comedy

*''The Flying Deuces'' (1939) *''The Blues Brothers (film), The Blues Brothers'' (1980) *'' Trading Places'' (1983) *''Weird Science (film), Weird Science'' (1985) *''Planes, Trains & Automobiles'' (1987) * ''Gammat Jammat'' (1987) *''Twins (1988 film), Twins'' (1988) * ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'' (1988) *''Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure'' (1989) *''Wayne's World (movie), Wayne's World'' (1992) *''Dumb and Dumber'' (1994) *''Clerks (1994 film), Clerks'' (1994) *''Mallrats'' (1995) *''Men in Black (1997 film), Men In Black'' (1997) *''Mouse Hunt'' (1997) *''Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle'' (2004) *''Wedding Crashers'' (2005) *''Hot Fuzz'' (2007) *''Hop (film), Hop'' (2011) *''The Nice Guys'' (2016) *''Sonic the Hedgehog (film), Sonic the Hedgehog'' (2020)

Action

* '' Sholay'' (1975)Wionews
* ''Yaarana (1981 film), ''Yaarana'''' (1981) *''48 Hrs.'' (1982) *''Beverly Hills Cop'' (1984) *''Running Scared (1986 film), Running Scared'' (1986) *''

'' (1987) *''Stakeout (1987 film), Stakeout'' (1987) *''Shoot to Kill (1988 film), Shoot to Kill'' (1988) *''Midnight Run'' (1988) *''Dead Heat (1988 film), Dead Heat'' (1988) *''Red Heat (1988 film), Red Heat'' (1988) *''Tango & Cash'' (1989) *''Turner & Hooch'' (1989) *''Showdown in Little Tokyo'' (1991) *''The Hard Way (1991 film), The Hard Way'' (1991) *''The Last Boy Scout'' (1991) *''Point Break'' (1991) *''Samurai Cop'' (1991) *''Se7en (1995 film), Se7en'' (1995) *''Die Hard with a Vengeance, Die Hard With a Vengeance'' (1995) *''Bad Boys (1995 film), Bad Boys'' (1995) *''Top Dog (1995 film), Top Dog'' (1995) *''

'' (1998) *''Shanghai Noon'' (2000) *''The 51st State'' (2001) *''Showtime (film), Showtime'' (2002) *''

'' (2003) *''Sherlock Holmes (2009 film), Sherlock Holmes'' (2009) *''Cop Out (2010 film), Cop Out'' (2010) *''The Other Guys'' (2010) *''21 Jump Street (film), 21 Jump Street'' (2012) *''2 Guns'' (2013) *''Ride Along (film), Ride Along'' (2014) *''Drive Hard'' (2014) *''Skin Trade (film), Skin Trade'' (2014) *''The Nice Guys'' (2016) *''RRR'' (2022)

Animation franchise

* ''The Land Before Time'' (1988-2016) * ''Toy Story (franchise), Toy Story'' (1995-present) * ''The Emperor's New Groove (franchise), The Emperor's New Groove'' (2000-2005) * ''Shrek (franchise), Shrek'' (2001-present) * ''Monsters, Inc. (franchise), Monsters, Inc.'' (2001-present) * ''Up (2009 film), Up'' (2009) * ''Home (2015 film), Home'' (2015) * ''Zootopia (franchise), Zootopia'' (2016-present) * ''The Secret Life of Pets (franchise), The Secret Life of Pets'' (2016-present) * ''Trolls (franchise), Trolls'' (2016-present) * ''The Boss Baby (franchise), The Boss Baby'' (2017-present)

Television series

''Lethal Weapon'' was adapted into a Lethal Weapon (TV series), television series which ran from 2016 to 2019. The 2021 series ''The Falcon and the Winter Soldier'' has many of the features of the buddy film genre, and is influenced by films like ''48 Hrs.'', ''The Defiant Ones'', ''Lethal Weapon'' and ''Rush Hour''. Other examples include ''Hardcastle and McCormick'', in which a retired judge and his last defendant follow up on cases that were dismissed due to technicalities; ''CHiPs'', the adventures of two California Highway Patrol motorcycle officers; and ''Voyagers!'', in which a member of a league of time travelers and a boy travel through time repairing errors in world history. In 2018, an original anime production ''A Place Further than the Universe'' aired. It comprises four girls with contrasting personalities and life background meeting together to go to Antarctica.