Bronze mirror Louvre with the Judgement of Paris

Bronze mirrors preceded the glass mirrors of today. This type of

mirror A mirror, also known as a looking glass, is an object that Reflection (physics), reflects an image. Light that bounces off a mirror forms an image of whatever is in front of it, which is then focused through the lens of the eye or a camera ...

, sometimes termed a copper mirror, has been found by

archaeologists Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of Artifact (archaeology), artifacts, architecture, biofact (archaeology), biofacts or ecofacts, ...

among elite assemblages from various cultures, from Etruscan Italy to

Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...

. Typically they are round and rather small, in the West with a handle, in East Asia with a knob to hold at the back, often with a loop for a cord, or silk tassel. Some were fitted with small stands, and others had a hinged protective cover. In surviving ancient examples the surface is too corroded to be reflective, but some bronze mirrors are still made. Aranmula mirror high quality bronze mirror

Aranmula mirror high quality bronze mirror

They are first-surface mirrors, where the immediate

bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals (such as phosphorus) or metalloid ...

surface is flat, plain and highly polished to be reflective, rather than second-surface mirrors, like modern glass mirrors, where the reflection comes from a backing applied to the glass. They are significantly inferior to modern mirrors in terms of the quality of the reflection, but in older societies were sufficiently impressive to have religious significance in some societies. Examples include the melong in

Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, D ...

and the ''toli'' in Asian

Shamanism Shamanism is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with the spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritual energies into ...

. The ancient Greeks and others used mirrors for divining, and the Chinese believed they stored sunlight, and so could "guide the deceased through the underworld", making them essential grave-goods. The back is often highly decorated in various techniques and styles, and may be significant for

art history Art history is the study of Work of art, artistic works made throughout human history. Among other topics, it studies art’s formal qualities, its impact on societies and cultures, and how artistic styles have changed throughout history. Tradit ...

. Chinese styles include the Flower Mirror, TLV mirror and Inscribed mirror, while the Large Flower Mirror and Shinju-kyo are Japanese. Most ancient images show them being used by women, and figurative imagery on the back, as in Roman mirrors, often reflects female interests.

History

Bronze mirrors were themselves preceded by mirrors made of

obsidian Obsidian ( ) is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed when lava extrusive rock, extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth. It is an igneous rock. Produced from felsic lava, obsidian is rich in the lighter element ...

(volcanic glass), found across the

Middle East The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...

. These remained the standard in the Americas until the arrival of Europeans.

Iron pyrite The mineral pyrite ( ), or iron pyrite, also known as fool's gold, is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula Fe S2 (iron (II) disulfide). Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide mineral. Pyrite's metallic luster and pale brass-yellow hue ...

was also used. Glass mirrors with superior reflectivity began to be made in the

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...

in the 1st century CE, but remained very expensive for a long time, as well as easy to break, and initially hardly any more reflective, so that bronze mirrors remained common in many parts of the world until the 19th century. Speculum metal is a very hard high-tin bronze-type alloy, with about 30% tin rather than the typical 12–15%. It polishes well to give very good reflectivity, and was important in

Early Modern The early modern period is a Periodization, historical period that is defined either as part of or as immediately preceding the modern period, with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity. There i ...

telescope A telescope is a device used to observe distant objects by their emission, Absorption (electromagnetic radiation), absorption, or Reflection (physics), reflection of electromagnetic radiation. Originally, it was an optical instrument using len ...

s and other uses. Its use in mirrors may date back more than 2000 years in China although it could also be an invention of western civilizations. There seem to be references to it by

Pliny the Elder Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/24 79), known in English as Pliny the Elder ( ), was a Roman Empire, Roman author, Natural history, naturalist, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the Roman emperor, emperor Vesp ...

. It was certainly in use by the European

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...

, giving better reflectivity than the usual bronze, and tarnishing more slowly. However, tin was expensive, and the composition of the alloy had to be controlled precisely. Confusingly, mirrors made of speculum metal were known at the time, and often later, as "steel mirrors", although they had no

steel Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon that demonstrates improved mechanical properties compared to the pure form of iron. Due to steel's high Young's modulus, elastic modulus, Yield (engineering), yield strength, Fracture, fracture strength a ...

in them.

Egypt and Near East

Polished bronze mirrors were made by the

Egyptians Egyptians (, ; , ; ) are an ethnic group native to the Nile, Nile Valley in Egypt. Egyptian identity is closely tied to Geography of Egypt, geography. The population is concentrated in the Nile Valley, a small strip of cultivable land stretchi ...

from 2900 BCE onwards. These Egyptian mirrors are spoken of in biblical Book of Exodus (1500 BCE), and used by Moses in the construction of the Tabernacle.

China

Bronze mirrors were produced in China from

Neolithic The Neolithic or New Stone Age (from Ancient Greek, Greek 'new' and 'stone') is an archaeological period, the final division of the Stone Age in Mesopotamia, Asia, Europe and Africa (c. 10,000 BCE to c. 2,000 BCE). It saw the Neolithic Revo ...

times until Western glass mirrors were brought to China. Bronze mirrors were usually circular, with one side polished bright, to give a reflection, and the reverse side normally decorated in

cast Cast may refer to: Music * Cast (band), an English alternative rock band * Cast (Mexican band), a progressive Mexican rock band * The Cast, a Scottish musical duo: Mairi Campbell and Dave Francis * ''Cast'', a 2012 album by Trespassers William ...

relief Relief is a sculpture, sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term ''wikt:relief, relief'' is from the Latin verb , to raise (). To create a sculpture in relief is to give ...

in early examples, later on sometimes inlaid in precious metal. They generally had a knob or loop in the center of the back so that they could be easily held in the hand, and sometimes attached to clothing. In the Tang and Song dynasties some examples were larger and more variable in shape. Other examples are so small, about 5 cm across, that they may have been mainly intended for ritual use, as "charms to ward off evil spirits". Some of the earliest examples of Chinese bronze mirrors belonged to the late Neolithic Qijia culture from around 2000 BCE (some use of bronze is found before the

Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...

, when it became general for some types of objects). However, until

Warring States The Warring States period in Chinese history (221 BC) comprises the final two and a half centuries of the Zhou dynasty (256 BC), which were characterized by frequent warfare, bureaucratic and military reforms, and struggles for gre ...

times, bronze mirrors were not common with approximately only twenty having been discovered. During the

period, mirrors became particularly popular. During the

Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...

(202 BCE – 220 CE) mirrors started to be mass-produced in standardised designs, including the TLV mirror. Some Western Han dynasty mirrors featured intricate inlays using silver, gold, glass, and lead–barium silicates, a synthetic material resembling jade, to enhance visual appeal and symbolic value. Both Han and Tang mirrors are considered to be the most technically advanced. Both the quantity and quality of finds in graves declined after the Tang dynasty, but bronze mirrors continued to remain popular up through the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...

, but then gradually lost their popularity and ceased to be produced after the arrival of Western mirrors during the Ming and

Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...

dynasties. Specific types include the inscribed mirror, Flower Mirror and Large Flower Mirror. File:Bronze Mirror, Qijia Culture, GansuNational Museum,Beijing.jpg, Early mirror, Qijia culture, before c. 1800 BCE File:Han Bronze Mirror - 8.jpg,

, 202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD File:Dinastia tang, specchio con animali e uva, 690 dc ca.jpg, The "animals and grapes design", c. 690,

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

File:Jin dynasty double fish mirror.jpg, The "double fish design", popular in the Jin dynasty (1115-1234) File:Song Bronze Mirror 08.jpg,

File:Chinese numismatic charms - Scott Semans 53.jpg, Very small hand mirror

Europe

The

Minoan civilization The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age culture which was centered on the island of Crete. Known for its monumental architecture and energetic art, it is often regarded as the first civilization in Europe. The ruins of the Minoan palaces at K ...

produced hand-mirrors in the 2nd millennium BCE, followed by the Myceneans. They were no doubt following the Egyptian or Near Eastern precedents. After disappearing in the

Greek Dark Ages The Greek Dark Ages ( 1180–800 BC) were earlier regarded as two continuous periods of Greek history: the Postpalatial Bronze Age (c. 1180–1050 BC) and the Prehistoric Iron Age or Early Iron Age (c. 1050–800 BC). The last included all the ...

, they returned in

Archaic Greece Archaic Greece was the period in History of Greece, Greek history lasting from to the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, following the Greek Dark Ages and succeeded by the Classical Greece, Classical period. In the archaic period, the ...

, including some mirrors on elaborate stands (already an Egyptian type), as well as hand-mirrors with handles. The stands most often featured a standing female figure, often with

putti A putto (; plural putti ) is a figure in a work of art depicted as a chubby male child, usually naked and very often winged. Originally limited to profane passions in symbolism,Dempsey, Charles. ''Inventing the Renaissance Putto''. University ...

. These are called " caryatid mirrors". Folding mirrors, also called "box mirrors", from about 400 BCE, typically had relief designs on the outside of the lid, and engraved decoration on the inside. Most were still round, and lacked handles, presumably as they were meant to be held by a maid. Eros/Cupid is often shown holding up a mirror for Aphrodite/Venus. In the early periods, designs were typically engraved on the back, but luxury Greco-Roman mirrors often had figurative designs in relief. Mirrors from the

Iron Age The Iron Age () is the final epoch of the three historical Metal Ages, after the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. It has also been considered as the final age of the three-age division starting with prehistory (before recorded history) and progre ...

have been discovered across most of Europe, generally as grave-goods. The Greeks were the earliest makers; the

Etruscans The Etruscan civilization ( ) was an ancient civilization created by the Etruscans, a people who inhabited Etruria in List of ancient peoples of Italy, ancient Italy, with a common language and culture, and formed a federation of city-states. Af ...

imported Greek mirrors, and then began making their own, passing the practice on to their Roman conquerors. In the 1st century CE Seneca mentioned large wall mirrors; it may have been in front of one of these that

Demosthenes Demosthenes (; ; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide insight into the politics and cu ...

used to practise his speeches in the 4th century BCE. The rich had silver or silver-plated mirrors.

Celt The Celts ( , see Names of the Celts#Pronunciation, pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples ( ) were a collection of Indo-European languages, Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancient Indo-European people, reached the apoge ...

ic mirrors in

Britain Britain most often refers to: * Great Britain, a large island comprising the countries of England, Scotland and Wales * The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, a sovereign state in Europe comprising Great Britain and the north-eas ...

were produced up until the Roman conquest. Notable examples include the

Desborough Mirror The Desborough Mirror is an intricately decorated English bronze mirror dated to . It consists of a Metal casting, cast handle and a circular mirror plate which is highly polished on its front side to achieve reflectivity. The plate's reverse is ...

, and those found in Birdlip and Langton Herring. File:Bronze mirror with a support in the form of a draped woman MET DP266227 (cropped).jpg, Greek caryatid mirror, mid-5th century BCE File:7279 - 3rd century BC mirror - Museo archeologico nazionale, Taranto, room XII - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, October 11 2015 (cropped).jpg, Greek folding mirror (found in Italy), 3rd century BCE, with Eros playing for Aphrodite File:Pompéi (Nîmes) 45.jpg, Front of silver Roman mirror from

Pompeii Pompeii ( ; ) was a city in what is now the municipality of Pompei, near Naples, in the Campania region of Italy. Along with Herculaneum, Stabiae, and Villa Boscoreale, many surrounding villas, the city was buried under of volcanic ash and p ...

File:MirrorDSCF6602.jpg, An Iron Age bronze mirror with Celtic decoration from 120 to 80 BCE. Found in

St Keverne St Keverne () is a civil parishes in England, civil parish and village on The Lizard in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. In addition to the parish, an electoral ward exists called ''St Keverne and Meneage''. This stretches to the western Liz ...

, England File:Specchio in argento con mito di frisso ed elle, da vellerano, tomba 2, 150-200 ca..JPG, Silver, Roman, 150-200 CE, with unusually high relief File:Espejo (16745524072).jpg, Cupid with mirror on a mirror-back, Spain File:Fresco showing a woman looking in a mirror as she dresses (or undresses) her hair, from the Villa of Arianna at Stabiae (Castellammare di Stabia), Naples National Archaeological Museum (17392924485).jpg, Fresco from

File:Villa dei Misteri IX - 1.jpg, Cupid holding up a rectangular mirror,

Villa of the Mysteries The Villa of the Mysteries () is a well-preserved suburban ancient Roman villa on the outskirts of Pompeii, southern Italy. It is famous for the series of exquisite frescos in Room 5, which are usually interpreted as showing the initiation of a b ...

India

In the

Indus valley civilization The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE ...

, manufacture of bronze mirrors goes back to the time between 2800 and 2500 BCE. Bronze mirrors are usually circular. With excavations in Adichanallur and Keeladi in

Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is the southernmost States and union territories of India, state of India. The List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of Indi ...

, India, it is confirmed that communities lived around the

Vaigai river The Vaigai is a river in the Tamil Nadu state of southern India; it passes through the towns of Theni, Madurai, Manamadurai, Paramakudi and Ramanathapuram. It originates in Varusanadu Hills, the Periyar Plateau of the Western Ghats range, ...

valley in the

. The excavations done in Adichanallur in 1899 by Alexander Rea, the then Superintendent of the Archeological Survey of India, Southern circle brought out two bronze circular items. They are bronze mirrors similar to ones found in other civilisations. Carbon dating of samples tested resulted in the age of such items to be before 1500 BC. Aranmula kannadi are still made on a small scale in

Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...

, South India, using a type of speculum metal, an extra reflective

alloy An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which in most cases at least one is a metal, metallic element, although it is also sometimes used for mixtures of elements; herein only metallic alloys are described. Metallic alloys often have prop ...

of copper and tin.

Japan

Japanese bronze mirrors were adopted from China, and are similar in form and, initially, style. Many had red silk tassels through the knob on the back. Mirrors in Shinto have ritual uses. The c. 5th-century Suda Hachiman Shrine Mirror is a National Treasure of Japan, largely for the linguistic importance of its cast characters. According to its relief inscription it was made for a prince. is a sacred mirror that is part of the

Imperial Regalia of Japan The are the imperial regalia of Japan and consist of the sword , the mirror , and the jewel . They represent the three primary virtues: valour (the sword), wisdom (the mirror), and benevolence (the jewel).

Notes

References

*Dillon, Michael O. (ed.), ''China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary'', 1998, Curzon Press,
google books
*Osborne, Harold (ed), ''The Oxford Companion to the Decorative Arts'', 1975, OUP,

External links

"Japanese bronze mirror"
'' A History of the World in 100 Objects'',

British Museum The British Museum is a Museum, public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world. It documents the story of human cu ...

Chinese Bronze Mirrors – Australian Museum
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bronze Mirror Bronze Age Archaeological artefact types Mirrors Bronze mirrors Ancient art in metal