
Bottled water is
drinking water
Drinking water or potable water is water that is safe for ingestion, either when drunk directly in liquid form or consumed indirectly through food preparation. It is often (but not always) supplied through taps, in which case it is also calle ...
(e.g.,
well water
A well is an excavation or structure created on the earth by digging, driving, or drilling to access liquid resources, usually water. The oldest and most common kind of well is a water well, to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The ...
,
distilled water,
reverse osmosis water,
mineral water
Mineral water is water from a mineral spring that contains various minerals, such as salts and sulfur compounds. It is usually still, but may be sparkling ( carbonated/ effervescent).
Traditionally, mineral waters were used or consumed at t ...
, or
spring water
A spring is a natural exit point at which groundwater emerges from an aquifer and flows across the ground surface as surface water. It is a component of the hydrosphere, as well as a part of the water cycle. Springs have long been important f ...
) packaged in
plastic
Plastics are a wide range of synthetic polymers, synthetic or Semisynthesis, semisynthetic materials composed primarily of Polymer, polymers. Their defining characteristic, Plasticity (physics), plasticity, allows them to be Injection moulding ...
or
glass
Glass is an amorphous (non-crystalline solid, non-crystalline) solid. Because it is often transparency and translucency, transparent and chemically inert, glass has found widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in window pane ...
water bottles. Bottled water may be
carbonated or not, with packaging sizes ranging from small single serving bottles to large
carboys for
water coolers. The consumption of bottled water is influenced by factors such as convenience, taste, perceived safety, and concerns over the quality of municipal
tap water
Tap water (also known as running water, piped water or municipal water) is water supplied through a Tap (valve), tap, a water dispenser valve. In many countries, tap water usually has the quality of drinking water. Tap water is commonly used f ...
. Concerns about the environmental impact of bottled water, including the production and disposal of plastic bottles, have led to calls for more sustainable practices in the industry.
History
Although vessels to bottle and transport water were part of the earliest human civilizations, bottling water began in the United Kingdom with the first water bottling at the
Holy Well
A holy well or sacred spring is a well, Spring (hydrosphere), spring or small pool of water revered either in a Christianity, Christian or Paganism, pagan context, sometimes both. The water of holy wells is often thought to have healing qualitie ...
in 1622. The demand for bottled water was fueled in large part by the resurgence in
spa-going and
water therapy among Europeans and American colonists in the 17th and 18th centuries.
'Bristol Water' taken from the spa at
Hotwells was one of the first drinking waters to be bottled and marketed widely.
Daniel Defoe
Daniel Defoe (; born Daniel Foe; 1660 – 24 April 1731) was an English writer, merchant and spy. He is most famous for his novel ''Robinson Crusoe'', published in 1719, which is claimed to be second only to the Bible in its number of translati ...
noted in 1724 that there were over 15 glasshouses in Bristol, "which are more than in London...and vast numbers of bottles are used for sending the water of the Hotwell not only over England but all over the world."
The first commercially distributed water in America was bottled and sold by Jackson's Spa in Boston in 1767.
Early drinkers of bottled spa waters believed that the water at these
mineral spring
Mineral springs are naturally occurring springs that produce hard water, water that contains dissolved minerals. Salts, sulfur compounds, and gases are among the substances that can be dissolved in the spring water during its passage un ...
s had therapeutic properties and that bathing in or drinking the water could help treat many common ailments.
The popularity of bottled mineral waters quickly led to a market for imitation products.
Carbonated waters
Carbonated water is water containing dissolved carbon dioxide gas, either artificially injected under pressure, or occurring due to natural geological processes. Carbonation causes small bubbles to form, giving the water an effervescent quali ...
developed to reproduce the natural effervescence of spring-bottled water, and in 1809 Joseph Hawkins was issued the first U.S. patent for "imitation" mineral water. Technological innovation in the 19th century led to cheaper glass and quicker bottling. So bottled water could be produced on a larger scale and grew in popularity.
Many saw bottled water as safer than municipal water supplies, which could spread diseases such as
cholera
Cholera () is an infection of the small intestine by some Strain (biology), strains of the Bacteria, bacterium ''Vibrio cholerae''. Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe. The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea last ...
and
typhoid
Typhoid fever, also known simply as typhoid, is a disease caused by ''Salmonella enterica'' serotype Typhi bacteria, also called ''Salmonella'' Typhi. Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often ther ...
.
By around 1850, one of America's most popular bottlers, Saratoga Springs, was producing more than 7 million bottles of water annually.

In the United States, the popularity of bottled water declined in the early 20th century, when the advent of
water chlorination
Water chlorination is the process of adding chlorine or chlorine compounds such as sodium hypochlorite to water. This method is used to kill bacteria, viruses and other microbes in water. In particular, chlorination is used to prevent the spr ...
reduced public concerns about water-borne diseases in municipal water supplies.
But it remained popular in Europe, where it spread to cafés and grocery stores in the second half of the century.
Perrier water had been bottled since the 19th century and widely sold throughout the
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, Crown colony, colonies, protectorates, League of Nations mandate, mandates, and other Dependent territory, territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It bega ...
; in 1977 Perrier launched in the United States.
Today, bottled water is the most popular commercial beverage in the United States, with about 25% of the consumption share versus 18.7% for soft drinks.
Water chemistry
Many of the early developments in the field of
chemistry
Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...
can be attributed to the study of natural mineral waters and attempts to replicate them for commercial sale.
Joseph Priestley
Joseph Priestley (; 24 March 1733 – 6 February 1804) was an English chemist, Unitarian, Natural philosophy, natural philosopher, English Separatist, separatist theologian, Linguist, grammarian, multi-subject educator and Classical libera ...
, who discovered
oxygen
Oxygen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group (periodic table), group in the periodic table, a highly reactivity (chemistry), reactive nonmetal (chemistry), non ...
in 1775, made his first contributions to the field of chemistry by dissolving carbon dioxide in water, for which he was awarded the
Copley Medal
The Copley Medal is the most prestigious award of the Royal Society of the United Kingdom, conferred "for sustained, outstanding achievements in any field of science". The award alternates between the physical sciences or mathematics and the bio ...
in 1773. He later worked with
Johann Jacob Schweppe
Johann Jacob Schweppe ( , ; 16 March 1740 – 18 November 1821) was a German watchmaker and amateur scientist who developed the first practical process to manufacture bottled carbonated mineral water and began selling the world's first bottled so ...
, founder of
Schweppes
Schweppes ( , ) is a soft drink brand founded in the Republic of Geneva in 1783 by the German watchmaker and amateur scientist Johann Jacob Schweppe; it is now made, bottled, and distributed worldwide by multiple international conglomerates, de ...
, in developing "aerated" waters for commercial sale.
PET plastic bottles
In 1973,
DuPont
Dupont, DuPont, Du Pont, duPont, or du Pont may refer to:
People
* Dupont (surname) Dupont, also spelled as DuPont, duPont, Du Pont, or du Pont is a French surname meaning "of the bridge", historically indicating that the holder of the surname re ...
engineer
Nathaniel Wyeth patented
Polyethylene terephthalate
Polyethylene terephthalate (or poly(ethylene terephthalate), PET, PETE, or the obsolete PETP or PET-P), is the most common thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family and is used in synthetic fibre, fibres for clothing, packaging, conta ...
(PET) bottles, the first plastic bottle to withstand the pressure of carbonated liquids. Today, PET plastic has replaced glass as the preferred material for single-serving bottled water containers due to its light weight and resistance to breaking.

The mere fact of lightweight single-use packaging and one-way shipping caused the revolution in water marketing that by the late 1990's had spread from the U.S. and Europe to around the world.
Types

Some of the more common types of bottled water are:
*
Alkaline water – this type of water has increased
pH levels produced through
electrolysis
In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a technique that uses Direct current, direct electric current (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of c ...
*
Artesian water – this is water that originates from a confined aquifer that has been tapped and in which the water level stands at some height above the top of the aquifer and flows naturally to the surface. This water is at a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure, so it flows naturally from the surface or pipe.
*
Fluoridated – this type of water contains added fluoride. This category includes water classified as "For Infants" or "Nursery."
*
Groundwater
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and Pore space in soil, soil pore spaces and in the fractures of stratum, rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in the world is groundwater. A unit ...
– this type of water is from an underground source such as a well. This can include Artesian water sources.
*
Mineral water
Mineral water is water from a mineral spring that contains various minerals, such as salts and sulfur compounds. It is usually still, but may be sparkling ( carbonated/ effervescent).
Traditionally, mineral waters were used or consumed at t ...
– water from a
mineral spring
Mineral springs are naturally occurring springs that produce hard water, water that contains dissolved minerals. Salts, sulfur compounds, and gases are among the substances that can be dissolved in the spring water during its passage un ...
that contains various
mineral
In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid substance with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. (2011): Mi ...
s, such as
salt
In common usage, salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl). When used in food, especially in granulated form, it is more formally called table salt. In the form of a natural crystalline mineral, salt is also known as r ...
s and
sulfur compounds
Sulfur compounds are chemical compounds formed the element sulfur (S). Common oxidation states of sulfur range from −2 to +6. Sulfur forms stable compounds with all elements except the noble gases.
Electron transfer reactions
Sulfur polyca ...
. It comes from a source tapped at one or more bore holes or spring, and originates from a geologically and physically protected underground water source. No minerals may be added to this water.
*
Purified water
Purified water is water that has been mechanically filtered or processed to remove impurities and make it suitable for use. Distilled water was, formerly, the most common form of purified water, but, in recent years, water is more frequently pu ...
– this type of water has been produced by distillation, deionization, reverse osmosis, or other suitable processes. Purified water may also be referred to as "demineralized water".
*
Sparkling water – Sparkling water contains the same amount of carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source. The carbon dioxide may be removed and replenished after treatment.
*
Spring water
A spring is a natural exit point at which groundwater emerges from an aquifer and flows across the ground surface as surface water. It is a component of the hydrosphere, as well as a part of the water cycle. Springs have long been important f ...
– this type of water comes from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the Earth's surface.
*
Sterile water – this type of water meets sterilization requirements, for example, those specified under "sterility tests" in the United States Pharmacopoeia.
*
Well water
A well is an excavation or structure created on the earth by digging, driving, or drilling to access liquid resources, usually water. The oldest and most common kind of well is a water well, to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The ...
– well water is taken from a hole tapping, etc. This hole may be bored, drilled, or otherwise constructed in the ground.
Product forms
The Beverage Marketing Corporation defines the bottled water market segment as "retail PET, retail bulk, home and office delivery, vending, domestic sparkling and imports", but excluding "flavored and enhanced water."
["Smaller categories still saw growth as the U.S. liquid refreshment beverage market shrunk by 2.0% in 2008, Beverage Marketing Corporation reports", ''press release']
Beverage Marketing Corporation
30 March 2009.
Purified water vending machines

A number of cities and companies worldwide have
vending machine
A vending machine is an automated machine that dispenses items such as snacks, beverages, cigarettes, and lottery tickets to consumers after cash, a credit card, or other forms of payment are inserted into the machine or payment is otherwise m ...
s that dispense purified water into customers' own containers. All dispensers filter the location's tap water. In North America, these machines are typically located outside of supermarkets.
Bottled water service
Bottled water subscription services provide regular deliveries of water. Traditionally, water in glass bottles or jugs was provided to electric coolers in areas of businesses without plumbing. Plastic containers have superseded glass jugs, although dispensers at businesses may stand alongside existing water taps or fountains.
Storage
Bottled water is often stored as part of an
emergency kit in case of
natural disaster
A natural disaster is the very harmful impact on a society or community brought by natural phenomenon or Hazard#Natural hazard, hazard. Some examples of natural hazards include avalanches, droughts, earthquakes, floods, heat waves, landslides ...
. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) says the "safest" and "most reliable" source of drinking water is store-bought bottled water. Commonly,
disaster management
Emergency management (also Disaster management) is a science and a system charged with creating the framework within which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters. Emergency management, despite its name, does not actua ...
experts recommend storing of water per person, per day for at least three days. This amount is intended to include water for drinking and cooking as well as water for
hand washing
Hand washing (or handwashing), also known as hand hygiene, is the act of cleaning one's hands with soap, soap or handwash and water to remove viruses, bacteria, microorganisms, dirt, grease, and other harmful or unwanted substances stuck to th ...
, washing dishes, and
personal hygiene. Factory containers of water have an indefinite shelf life, as long as they remain unopened and undamaged.
The
sell-by date is voluntarily and individually set by manufacturers to indicate the length of time that they believe the water will taste and smell fresh, rather than to indicate any issue of contamination or
food safety
Food safety (or food hygiene) is used as a scientific method/discipline describing handling, food processing, preparation, and food storage, storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. The occurrence of two or more cases of a simi ...
.
PET recycling
The most common packaging material for single-serve, non-carbonated bottled water in the United States and Europe is polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic. Marked in many countries with
resin identification code
The Resin Identification Code (RIC) is a technical standard with a set of symbols appearing on plastic products that identify the Synthetic resin, plastic resin out of which the product is made. It was developed in 1988 by the Society of the P ...
number "1", PET is 100% recyclable, though recycling rates vary by region. In 2014, approximately 1.8 billion pounds of post-consumer PET bottles were collected in the United States and 1.75 million metric tons (approximately 3.9 billion pounds) were collected in the European Union, making it the most recycled plastic in both the United States and Europe. In the United States, the recycling rate for PET packaging was 32% in 2014; in the European Union, the recycling rate for PET packaging for the same period was approximately 52%.
The National Association for PET Container Resources (NAPCOR), the trade association for the PET plastic packaging industry in the United States and Canada, identifies five major, generic end-use categories for recycled PET plastic:
# Packaging applications, including new bottles.
# Sheet and film applications, including some thermoforming applications.
# Strapping.
# Engineered resins applications.
# Fiber applications.
In Europe, more than one-third of recovered PET plastic is used to produce polyester fibers, and another quarter is used in the production of preformed plastic containers—such as egg cartons, fruit boxes, and other plastic beverage bottles.
Water and energy usage
On average, it takes 1.32 litres (L) of water to produce 1 L of bottled water.
This includes 1 L of ingredient water and 0.32 L of water used in facility processes such as treatment, bottling, and maintenance.
Small pack facilities (facilities that package water in containers between 8 oz. and 2.5 gallons) use the least amount of water (1.26 L per 1 L), followed by mixed packaging facilities (1.46 L per 1 L). Facilities that package water for home and office delivery in sizes of 2.5 gallons to 5 gallons use the most water (1.56 L per 1 L).
Bottled water has lower water usage than bottled soft drinks, which average 2.02 L per 1 L, as well as beer (4 L per 1 L) and wine (4.74 L per 1 L). The larger per-litre water consumption of these drinks can be attributed to additional ingredients and production processes, such as flavor mixing and carbonization for soft drinks and fermentation for beer and wine.
[Thomas Andrew Gustafson]
How Much Water Actually Goes Into Making A Bottle Of Water?
''NPR'', 30 October 2013. In the United States, bottled water production represents 0.011% of annual water consumption.
Critics of bottled water argue that the industry should take in to account not just water used in its production and packaging process, but the total
water footprint
A water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to Consumption (economics), consumption by people. The water footprint of an individual, community, or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods an ...
of its supply chain, which includes water used in the production of its packaging.
A 2011 IBWA lifecycle inventory study found that the production, packaging, and transportation of bottled water within the United States consumes of energy annually, which represents about 0.07% of yearly energy consumption in the country.
[IBWA]
Life Cycle Inventory of the U.S. Bottled Water Industry
, 5 January 2011. According to the same study, 6.8 million tons of
equivalent are emitted by the bottled water industry a year in the United States, about 0.08% of annual emissions.
An Aetna Group study in 2015 concluded that each litre of bottled water requires 240
kilojoules of energy to produce.
The lifecycle carbon footprint for a half litre of small pack bottled water is 111 grams equivalent.
By comparison, the same sized PET plastic-bottled soft drink produces 240 grams equivalent. Soft drink bottles require much thicker plastic due to carbonation, and therefore many more grams of equivalent.
Regulation
Bureau of Indian Standards – India
The
Bureau of Indian Standards
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the National Standards Body of India under Department of Consumer affairs, Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution, Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution, Government ...
(BIS) is the national standards body of India working under the aegis of
Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution,
Government of India
The Government of India (ISO 15919, ISO: Bhārata Sarakāra, legally the Union Government or Union of India or the Central Government) is the national authority of the Republic of India, located in South Asia, consisting of States and union t ...
. It is established by the Bureau of Indian Standards Act, 1986 which came into effect on 23 December 1986. The minister in charge of the ministry or department having administrative control of the BIS is the ex-officio president of the BIS.
Food and Drug Administration – US
Bottled water is comprehensively regulated by the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a List of United States federal agencies, federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is respo ...
(FDA) as a packaged food product. By law, the FDA regulations for bottled water must be at least as stringent as the
Environmental Protection Agency standards for tap water.
The FDA has established "Standards of Identity" for bottled water products sold in the U.S. For a product to be considered "bottled water", it cannot contain sweeteners or chemical additives (other than flavors, extracts or essences) and must be calorie-free and sugar-free. If flavors, extracts and essences—derived from spice or fruit—are added to the water, these additions must comprise less than 1% by weight of the final product. The FDA Code of Federal Regulations establishes limitations for the amount of fluoride that can be added to water. Mineral water contains at least 250 parts per million total dissolved solids (TDS). "Purified water" is defined in the
United States Pharmacopoeia
The ''United States Pharmacopeia'' (''USP'') is a pharmacopeia (compendium of drug information) for the United States published annually by the over 200-year old United States Pharmacopeial Convention (usually also called the USP), a nonprofi ...
.
Food Standards Code – Australia & New Zealand
Food Standards Australia New Zealand's Food Standards Code limits fluoride in bottled water to between 0.6 and 1.0 milligrams per litre, and requires any addition to be specified on the product label.
Industry reform – Canada
The Council of Canadians, a social action organization, stressed the need for bottled water industry reform after launching a boycott of
Nestlé
Nestlé S.A. ( ) is a Swiss multinational food and drink processing conglomerate corporation headquartered in Vevey, Switzerland. It has been the largest publicly held food company in the world, measured by revenue and other metrics, since 20 ...
in September 2016 after the company outbid a small town aiming to
secure a long-term water supply through a local well as the country battles drought and depletion of ground water reserves. Premier
Kathleen Wynne
Kathleen O'Day Wynne ( ; born May 21, 1953) is a former Canadian politician who served as the 25th premier of Ontario and leader of the Ontario Liberal Party from 2013 to 2018. She was Member of Provincial Parliament (Ontario), member of provinci ...
stated that her government will look for ways to put community needs ahead of bottled water corporations, saying "as we look at the water bottling industry, that has to be a question because we're talking about what we could argue is our most precious resource" that they have this "discussion about our water, the status of and the treatment of water bottling companies, that needs to be taken into consideration".
Markets
Global sales
Global bottled water consumption crossed the 3 billion hectoliter threshold in 2014. In 2017, the global rate of consumption rose by an estimated 7.6 percent. Per capita consumption was 50.1 liters, up by 3 liters from 2016's 47.1 liters.
Australia
The Australasian Bottled Water Institute is a regional member of the International Council of Bottled Water Associations. The bottled water industry in Australia is worth approximately $400 million per year,
An upmarket restaurant in
Sydney
Sydney is the capital city of the States and territories of Australia, state of New South Wales and the List of cities in Australia by population, most populous city in Australia. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Syd ...
has stopped selling bottled water and started using a machine costing A$5000 to filter, chill and carbonate tap water to get the same quality water.
Despite ongoing
water restrictions, an application to extract groundwater for bottled water was approved in 2020.
European Union
Directive 2009–54/EC deals with the marketing and exploitation of natural mineral waters in the
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are Geography of the European Union, located primarily in Europe. The u ...
. The two main types of bottled water recognized are mineral water and spring water.
Broadly speaking, "mineral water" is
groundwater
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and Pore space in soil, soil pore spaces and in the fractures of stratum, rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in the world is groundwater. A unit ...
that has emerged from the ground and flowed over
rock. Treatment of mineral water is restricted to removal of unstable elements such as
iron
Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's o ...
and
sulfur
Sulfur ( American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name) or sulphur ( Commonwealth spelling) is a chemical element; it has symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms ...
compounds. Treatment for such minerals may extend only to
filtration
Filtration is a physical separation process that separates solid matter and fluid from a mixture using a ''filter medium'' that has a complex structure through which only the fluid can pass. Solid particles that cannot pass through the filte ...
or
decanting with
oxygenation. Free
carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalent bond, covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at norma ...
may be removed only by physical methods, and the regulations for introduction (or reintroduction) of CO
2 are strictly defined. Disinfection of natural mineral water is completely prohibited, including the addition of any element that is likely to change bacterial colony counts. If natural mineral water is
effervescent, it must be labelled accordingly, depending on the origin of the carbon dioxide: naturally carbonated natural mineral water (no introduction of CO
2); natural mineral water fortified with gas from the spring (reintroduction of CO
2); carbonated natural mineral water (CO
2 added following strict guidelines).
Directive 2001–83/EC deals with bottled water that is considered a "medicinal product" and is thus excluded from the scope of the other regulation.
India
The bottled water industry in
India
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
witnessed a boom in the late 1990s soon after
Bisleri launched its packaged drinking water in the country. This significant growth was fuelled by a surge in advertising by the industry players that "bottled water was pure and healthy".
The total market was valued at in 2013, of which the top five players (
Bisleri,
PepsiCo
PepsiCo, Inc. is an American multinational corporation, multinational food, snack, and beverage corporation headquartered in Harrison, New York, in the hamlet of Purchase, New York, Purchase. PepsiCo's business encompasses all aspects of the f ...
,
Coca-Cola
Coca-Cola, or Coke, is a cola soft drink manufactured by the Coca-Cola Company. In 2013, Coke products were sold in over 200 countries and territories worldwide, with consumers drinking more than 1.8 billion company beverage servings ...
and
Parle) accounted for 67% of the market share. This market is expected to grow at a
CAGR of 22%, to reach in 2018.
[
In 2016, the state of ]Sikkim
Sikkim ( ; ) is a States and union territories of India, state in northeastern India. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China in the north and northeast, Bhutan in the east, Koshi Province of Nepal in the west, and West Bengal in the ...
announced restrictions on the usage of plastic water bottles (in government functions and meetings) and styrofoam products as it is associated with adverse health and environment impacts.
Lebanon
Lebanon has one of the fastest growth rate of per capita consumption of bottled water. Lebanon has seven major brands of bottled mineral water for local consumption and for exportation to the water-starved countries on the Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
and in the Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf, sometimes called the Arabian Gulf, is a Mediterranean seas, mediterranean sea in West Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Arabian Sea and the larger Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.Un ...
.
New Zealand
Bottled water in New Zealand
New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and List of islands of New Zealand, over 600 smaller islands. It is the List of isla ...
is regulated by Food Standards Australia New Zealand and must comply with the Food Act 1981. From July 2009 fluoride
Fluoride (). According to this source, is a possible pronunciation in British English. is an Inorganic chemistry, inorganic, Monatomic ion, monatomic Ion#Anions and cations, anion of fluorine, with the chemical formula (also written ), whose ...
was allowed to be present in bottled water as an additive or as a natural occurring mineral.
Pakistan
Due to contaminated water being widespread, in the mid-1980s urban families started installing filtration units at home. This later developed into companies providing mineral water delivery services at home. Use of these bottles that could be attached to a dispenser is still widespread.
Bottled water was made famous by one of the largest marketing campaigns in Pakistan history undertaken by Nestle. In 1998, Pakistan became the birthplace for the Nestle Pure Life bottled water brand. Other bottlers include dozens of local ones, Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Mineral Drops by water icon, Nature, Vey, Nova Pure Water Larkana, Mina Water, Great Water Islamabad, Murree Sparklettes and Dew Drop. Other imported brands such as Evian
Evian (, ; , stylized as evian) is a French brand that bottles mineral water from several sources near Évian-les-Bains, on the south shore of Lake Geneva.
Evian is owned by Danone, a French multinational corporation. In addition to the miner ...
also began marketing in the country.
United States
The U.S. is the second largest consumer market for bottled water in the world, followed by Mexico, Indonesia, and Brazil. China surpassed the United States to take the lead in 2013. In 2016, bottled water outsold carbonated soft drinks (by volume) to become the number one packaged beverage in the U.S. In 2018, bottled water consumption increased to 14 billion gallons, up 5.8 percent from 2017, with the average American drinking 41.9 gallons of bottled water annually.
In the United States, bottled water and tap water are regulated by different federal agencies: the Food and Drug Administration
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a List of United States federal agencies, federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is respo ...
(FDA) regulates bottled water and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the quality of tap water
Tap water (also known as running water, piped water or municipal water) is water supplied through a Tap (valve), tap, a water dispenser valve. In many countries, tap water usually has the quality of drinking water. Tap water is commonly used f ...
. The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) is headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia
Alexandria is an independent city (United States), independent city in Northern Virginia, United States. It lies on the western bank of the Potomac River approximately south of Washington, D.C., D.C. The city's population of 159,467 at the 2020 ...
.
From 1970 (16 brands) over 1998 (50 brands) to 2012 (195 brands), the number of mineral water brands in the U.S. has grown exponentially.
China:
** The revenue generated in the Bottled Water market in 2023 amounts to US$72.5bn.
** This market is projected to grow annually by 6.75% from 2023 to 2027, according to the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR).
** In global comparison, in the United States leads the way in terms of revenue, with US$94bn generated in 2023.
** When considering the total population figures, per person revenues in the Bottled Water market reach US$49.63 in 2023
Consumer information
Labeling
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates all packaged foods and beverage products, including bottled water, and mandates labeling requirements. FDA labeling requirements include a statement of the type of water in the container, compliance with the applicable definitions in the FDA Standards of Identity, ingredient labeling, name and place of business of the manufacturer, packer or distributor, net weight, and, if required, nutrition labeling.
Consumer information
Public water systems are required by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to provide households in their service territories with a Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) that provides information on the quality of their water during the previous year. Such disclosures are not required by the FDA of any packaged food or beverage product, including bottled water. All packaged foods and beverages, must be manufactured according to FDA regulations and must meet all applicable quality and safety standards.
In Canada, bottled water must meet the standards in the Food and Drugs Act & Regulations (FDAR) as it is considered a food. The FDAR works in partnership with Health Canada and Canadian in developing the policies regarding bottled water. The CFIA focuses more on regulations pertaining to packaging, labeling, advertising, and other safety practices, whereas the FDAR focuses more on the water itself. For example, the bottled water must meet the Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Regulations in Division 12, Part B of the Act must be met before it is approved for sale. Some of the regulations include: labeling terms, safety standards (i.e.: what is acceptable), and microbiological standards (i.e.: chlorine
Chlorine is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Cl and atomic number 17. The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the periodic table and its properties are mostly intermediate between ...
). In addition to this, the type of filtration method the water has gone through must be shown on the label, as stated in Section B.12.009 Additional information regarding regulations can be found on the CFIA website. The regulations specific to bottled water is in Division 12 and 15, which specify what can be added, such as the amount of arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol As and atomic number 33. It is a metalloid and one of the pnictogens, and therefore shares many properties with its group 15 neighbors phosphorus and antimony. Arsenic is not ...
and lead
Lead () is a chemical element; it has Chemical symbol, symbol Pb (from Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a Heavy metal (elements), heavy metal that is density, denser than most common materials. Lead is Mohs scale, soft and Ductility, malleabl ...
. Regulations are always being updated to conform with new scientific data, laws, new products, and new improvements. In terms of the types of water sold, spring and mineral water must meet the following criteria:
* originate from an underground source which is not part of a community water supply; and
* be naturally fit to drink (potable) at the source; and
* before bottling, not be treated in any way that changes the original chemical composition of the water. (The allowable treatments are discussed in section 1.2.)
In Canada, there are two categories of bottled water: 1) spring/mineral water
Mineral water is water from a mineral spring that contains various minerals, such as salts and sulfur compounds. It is usually still, but may be sparkling ( carbonated/ effervescent).
Traditionally, mineral waters were used or consumed at t ...
, or 2) water other than mineral water or spring water.
Emergency preparedness
Emergency preparedness refers to the steps taken prior to a natural disaster or emergency to ensure safety throughout the event. The American Red Cross and Federal Emergency Management Agency
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is an agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS), initially created under President Jimmy Carter by Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978 and implemented by two Exec ...
(FEMA) recommend that individuals and families maintain disaster supply kits in the event that an emergency disrupts food supply or public water systems, blocks roads, or leaves people unable to find essentials. Following disasters such as floods, blizzards, or earthquakes, water sources can be cut off or contaminated, limiting access to safe, clean drinking water. For this reason, FEMA recommends that all disaster supply kits include one gallon of water per person per day for at least three days for drinking and sanitation. In hot climates, FEMA recommends doubling this quantity.
For the water supply, FEMA recommends commercially bottled water kept in a cool, dark place. As an alternative, FEMA recommends using disinfected food-grade water containers to store tap water and replacing the water every six months.
Contamination
In August 2014, city officials in Toledo, Ohio
Toledo ( ) is a city in Lucas County, Ohio, United States, and its county seat. It is located at the western end of Lake Erie along the Maumee River. Toledo is the List of cities in Ohio, fourth-most populous city in Ohio and List of United Sta ...
banned local tap water after toxins from an algae bloom in Lake Erie were found in the city's water supply. The American Red Cross and AmeriCares responded by helping coordinate the distribution of bottled water to the 500,000 area residents impacted by the ban.
The city of Flint, Michigan
Flint is the largest city in Genesee County, Michigan, United States, and its county seat. Located along the Flint River (Michigan), Flint River northwest of Detroit, it is a principal city within the Central Michigan, Mid Michigan region. Flin ...
supplied bottled water to its residents for four years after it was discovered that the city's tap water supply was contaminated with lead, and elevated levels of total trihalomethanes (TTHM) – cancer-causing chemicals that are by-products of the chlorination of water. In addition, the contaminated tap water was blamed for a major outbreak of Legionnaires' disease
Legionnaires' disease is a form of atypical pneumonia caused by any species of ''Legionella'' bacteria, quite often ''Legionella pneumophila''. Signs and symptoms include cough, shortness of breath, high fever, myalgia, muscle pains, and headach ...
, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council
The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) is a United States–based 501(c)(3) non-profit international environmental advocacy group, with its headquarters in New York City and offices in Washington, D.C., San Francisco, Los Angeles, Chicag ...
.
Concerns
Most bottled water containers are made from recyclable PET plastic
A pet, or companion animal, is an animal kept primarily for a person's company or entertainment rather than as a working animal, livestock, or a laboratory animal. Popular pets are often considered to have attractive/ cute appearances, inte ...
, and some of these bottles end up in the waste stream in landfill
A landfill is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, waste was ...
s. The financial and environmental costs of transportation of bottled water has been another concern because of the energy used and the consequent release of carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalent bond, covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at norma ...
and the potential impact on climate change
Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in Global surface temperature, global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate variability and change, Climate change in ...
.
Bottled water is bought for many different reasons including taste, convenience
Convenient procedures, products and services are those intended to increase ease in accessibility, save resources (such as time, effort and energy) and decrease frustration. A modern convenience is a labor-saving device, service or substance ...
, poor tap water
Tap water (also known as running water, piped water or municipal water) is water supplied through a Tap (valve), tap, a water dispenser valve. In many countries, tap water usually has the quality of drinking water. Tap water is commonly used f ...
quality
Quality may refer to:
Concepts
*Quality (business), the ''non-inferiority'' or ''superiority'' of something
*Quality (philosophy), an attribute or a property
*Quality (physics), in response theory
*Energy quality, used in various science discipli ...
and safety concerns, health concerns and as a substitute for sugary drinks. The environmental impact, container safety, water origin, emergency supplies and role of the bottled water industry continue to be areas of concern for many people. In some cases it can be shown that bottled water is actually tap water. However, it is also argued that the quality specifications for some bottled waters in some jurisdictions are more stringent than the standards for tap-water. In the US, bottled water that comes from municipal suppliers must be clearly labeled as such unless it has been sufficiently processed to be labeled as "distilled" or "purified".
One American study showed that "even in areas with safe tap water, African American and Latino parents were three times more likely to give their children mostly bottled water compared to non-Latino white children, because of their belief that bottled water is safer, cleaner, better tasting, or more convenient." The economic implications of this also showed serious inequities: as a percentage of household income, whites reported median spending of 0.4% of their income on bottled water; African Americans and Latinos reported median spending to be more than twice as high." The study volunteers, "For poor families, the use of bottled water may lead to less availability of resources for other health needs ... by the rather striking levels of expenditure on water relative to household income." On a global scale, markets for bottled water in poorer developing countries are growing rapidly due to increased fears of "contaminated tap water, inadequate municipal water systems, and increased marketing on the part of bottled water companies." Sales of bottled water in Mexico, China, and parts of India are rising steeply.
Perceptions about bottled water
Bottled water is perceived by many as being a safer alternative to other sources of water such as tap water. Bottled water usage has increased even in countries where clean tap water is present. This may be attributed to consumers disliking the taste of tap water or its organoleptic
Organoleptic properties are the aspects of food, water or other substances as apprehended via the senses—including taste, sight, smell, and touch.
In traditional U.S. Department of Agriculture meat and poultry inspections, inspectors p ...
s.[Doria, M. D. "Bottled water versus tap water: understanding consumers-preferences." ''J Water Health'' 271 (2006): 276.] Another contributing factor to this shift could be the marketing success of bottled water. The success of bottled water marketing can be seen by Perrier's transformation of a bottle of water into a status symbol
A status symbol is a visible, external symbol of one's social position, an indicator of Wealth, economic or social status. Many luxury goods are often considered status symbols. ''Status symbol'' is also a Sociology, sociological term – as part ...
. However, while bottled water has grown in both consumption and sales, the industry's advertising expenses are considerably less than other beverages. According to the Beverage Marketing Corporation (BMC), in 2013, the bottled water industry spent $60.6 million on advertising. That same year, sports drink
Sports drinks, also known as electrolyte drinks, are non-caffeinated functional beverages whose stated purpose is to help athletes replace water, electrolytes, and energy before, during and (especially) after training or competition.
The eviden ...
s spent $128 million, sodas spent $564 million, and beer spent $1 billion.
Consumers tend to choose bottled water due to health related reasons. In communities that experience problems with their tap water, bottled water consumption is significantly higher. The International Bottled Water Association guidelines state that bottled water companies cannot compare their product to tap water in marketing operations. Consumers are also affected by memories associated with particular brands. For example, Coca-Cola took their Dasani
Dasani () is a brand of bottled water created by the Coca-Cola Company, launched in 1999. It is one of many List of Coca-Cola brands, brands of Coca-Cola bottled water sold around the world. The product is filtered and bottled.
Marketing
Un ...
product off the UK market after finding levels of bromate that were higher than legal standards because consumers in the UK associated this flaw with the Dasani product.
"Bottled water sales are higher amongst African-American, Asians and Hispanic groups, which typically have lower incomes than whites." Some hypothesize that these differences are due to the geographic distribution of ethnic groups. It was theorized that ethnic differences in bottled water usage "mirror the variability of water system quality between urban, suburban and rural areas (Abrahams et al. 2000) and it was also pointed out that they might reflect the memory of past problems caused by deficient tap-water systems in deprived areas (Olson 1999)." In France, a similar geographic study in the early 1970s found that bottled water consumption was found to be much higher in urban areas (Ferrier 2001). This finding was "also explained in terms of the poor quality of urban tap water and of the bad condition of the old lead pipes in French cities. Nonetheless, while poor tap water quality may motivate the public to search for alternative sources, it alone does not necessarily lead to higher consumption of bottled water."
Some surveys "found that bottled water, far from being an alternative to tap water, seems to be mostly consumed as a substitute for alcoholic and traditional soft drinks (e.g. AWWA-RF 1993; FWR 1996) – the exception being when water contamination presents serious health risks and the trust in the tap water company is highly eroded (e.g. Lonnon 2004)." Another explanation for the rise in popularity of bottled water is that "the consumption of 'pure' and 'natural' bottled water in degraded environments may represent a symbolic purging behavior." Additional research has analyzed the commodification of bottled water through the corporate and cultural branding of nature, and how this commodification has added to the discourse around access to water as a human right. There is a long and storied history of the portrayal of water as a product of and necessity for nature. Richard Wilk argues that somewhere along the way from the early Christian idealization of water as a pure substance to our modern abilities to exert power over nature, people have formed opinions on the adequacy of water based on its delivery. Public access to clean water was once a dream of the industrial world, but now, according to Wilk, it is seen as dirty. Drawing on his own research and that of other scholars, he presents a complex ideological system: bottled water (which is water that has been exposed to human intervention) is understood as pure or acceptable; water directly from a natural source (which is water that has not been exposed to human intervention – a spring, river, glacier, etc.) is assumed to be dirty and not to be trusted; and water that is provided for the public (which is water from an anonymous source that is controlled by the town or state) is also seen as dirty and untrustworthy. Despite these varying views, bottled water companies have successfully infiltrated the consumer market. Marketers have recognized and fed into the fetishization or degradation of these different water sources. These marketing schemes have an emphasis on "very old forms of value" and the manipulation of "distance, either increasing or decreasing it in geography, time, or social proximity". Wilk argues that the lack of consistency in which types and brands of water are available to all American consumers restricts individuals from exercising their personal moral and ethical ideals on sourcing their water. The struggle between trust and distrust of these water sources – whether it is natural or perceived to be natural – is central in the commodification of water.
Many low-income families avoid drinking tap water because they fear it may cause sickness. Bottled, filtered, and tap water are all for the most part safe in the United States. The Environmental Protection Agency regulations for tap water are "actually stricter than the Food and Drug Administration regulations for bottled water." A study of drinking water in Cincinnati, Ohio, discovered that bacterial counts in bottled water were often higher than those in tap water and fluoride concentration was inconsistent.
Globally, there is an intensifying environmental backlash against bottled water usage. As global consumption of bottled water soars, environmental groups such as the World Wide Fund for Nature
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is a Swiss-based international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named th ...
(WWF) and Greenpeace
Greenpeace is an independent global campaigning network, founded in Canada in 1971 by a group of Environmental movement, environmental activists. Greenpeace states its goal is to "ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its biod ...
have warned of the huge environmental footprint of the plastic in which the water is packaged.["Mail & Guardian Account Login." The M&G Online. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 April 2014.] In 2001, a WWF study, "Bottled water: understanding a social phenomenon", warned that in many countries, bottled water may be no safer or healthier than tap water and it sold for up to 1,000 times the price. It said the booming market would put severe pressure on recycling plastics and could lead to landfill sites drowning in mountains of plastic bottles. Also, the study found that the production of bottled water uses more water than the consumer actually buys in the bottle itself.
Pricing
Bottled water is more expensive than municipally-supplied tap water. Tap water sources and delivery systems (taps and faucets) are fixed in place while bottled water is available at many differing price points and in a variety of size formats.
"The consumption of bottled and filtered water has dramatically increased in the United States during the past decade, with bottled water sales tripling to about $4 billion a year. More than 50% of the US population drinks bottled water and 'people spend from 240 to over 10,000 times more per gallon for bottled water than they typically do for tap water.' An annual supply of bottled water for a person who consumes 8 glasses a day would cost approximately $200; the same amount of tap water would cost approximately $0.33. In general, women are more likely to drink bottled water than men, and Hispanic women are the group most likely to drink bottled water."
The Beverage Marketing Corporation (BMC) states that in 2013, the average wholesale price per gallon of domestic non-sparkling bottled water was $1.21. BMC's research also shows that consumers tend to buy bottled water in bulk from supermarkets (25.3%) or large discount retailers (57.9%) because it costs significantly less. Convenience stores are likely to have higher prices (4.5%), as do drug stores (2.8%). The remaining 9.5% is accounted for through vending machines, cafeterias and other food service outlets, and other types of sales.
Bans
In response to environmental and financial concerns, a few localities and U.S. colleges are banning bottled water sales.
In 2009, the small New South Wales town of Bundanoon voted to become the first town in the world to ban the selling or dispensing of bottled water. Bundanoon caught the attention of many other cities around the world.
After a Sydney-based beverage company wanted to open a water extraction plant in the New South Wales town Bundanoon, residents outlawed the sale of bottled water. The town continues to fight the company's proposal in court.
"In the same week the New South Wales state premier also banned all state departments and agencies from buying bottled water because of its huge environmental footprint, joining more than 70 cities in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom that have banned bottled water in their departments."
In 2012, the town of Concord, Massachusetts
Concord () is a town in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. In the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, the town population was 18,491. The United States Census Bureau considers Concord part of Greater Boston. The town center is n ...
, became the first in the United States to ban the sale of bottled water. Specifically, sales of non-sparkling, unflavored drinking water in single-serving polyethelyne terephthalate (PET) bottles of 1 litre (34 ounces) or less are prohibited. The ban went into effect on 1 January 2013.
Commodification
The commodification
Commodification is the process of transforming inalienable, free, or gifted things (objects, services, ideas, nature, personal information, people or animals) into commodities, or objects for sale.For animals"United Nations Commodity Trade Stati ...
of water into bottled water has led to the transformation of a once freely accessible resource into a widely marketed consumer product. Bottled water, initially introduced for its perceived purity and convenience, has become a global industry with substantial economic implications. In a 2006 article, American anthropologist Richard Wilk explored the commodification of bottled water, examining the cultural meanings embedded in water that are then manipulated by marketers, as well as the motivations behind the purchasing of bottled water. The commodification process involves branding, packaging, and marketing water as a commodity, often emphasizing qualities such as freshness, purity, and health benefits.
Wilk argues that the historical significance of water, from sacred springs to the modernist industrial theme of controlling nature, contributes to its unique capacity to convey both the magic of nature and technological mastery. Marketing strategies capitalize on nature-related imagery, using labels predominantly in blue and transparent bottles to emphasize purity. Wilk further examines the symbolic analysis of water's associations with nature, purity, and danger. Bottled water also intersects with social distinctions, health claims, and the exoticizing of its origins to enhance value. Wilk also addresses that bottled water, often marketed as superior or purer than tap water, frequently originates from municipal water supplies. Despite claims of taste distinctions, blind tests often reveal indiscernible differences between tap and bottled water.
Health concerns
In the United States, bottled water and tap water are regulated by different federal agencies: the Food and Drug Administration
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a List of United States federal agencies, federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is respo ...
(FDA) regulates bottled water and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the quality of tap water
Tap water (also known as running water, piped water or municipal water) is water supplied through a Tap (valve), tap, a water dispenser valve. In many countries, tap water usually has the quality of drinking water. Tap water is commonly used f ...
. Under the Safe Drinking Water Act
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the primary federal law in the United States intended to ensure safe drinking water for the public. Pursuant to the act, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is required to set standards for drinking wa ...
the EPA has set maximum contaminant levels for approximately 90 contaminants that might be found in drinking water and 15 secondary maximum contaminant levels.
In some areas, tap water may contain added fluoride
Fluoride (). According to this source, is a possible pronunciation in British English. is an Inorganic chemistry, inorganic, Monatomic ion, monatomic Ion#Anions and cations, anion of fluorine, with the chemical formula (also written ), whose ...
, which helps prevent tooth decay and cavities. Some bottled water manufacturers in the United States add fluoride to their product, or provide a fluoridated bottled water product. The FDA of the United States does not require bottled water manufacturers to list the fluoride content on the label. However, unlike tap water where the amount of fluoride added by municipalities to drinking water is not federally regulated, the FDA has set specific limits for how much fluoride may be found in bottled water. Water fluoridation remains controversial in countries that require it (the United States, United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia, and a handful of other countries). Several studies have examined the content of fluoride and other chemicals in bottled water as well as the accuracy of these values as printed on the labels showing some significant difference between labeled and measured value.
According to a 1999 NRDC study, in which roughly 22 percent of brands were tested, at least one sample of bottled drinking water contained chemical contaminants at levels above strict state health limits. Some of the contaminants found in the study could pose health risks if consumed over a long period of time. The NRDC report conceded that "most waters contained no detectable bacteria, however, and the level of synthetic organic chemicals and inorganic chemicals of concern for which heywere tested were either below detection limits or well below all applicable standards." Meanwhile, a report by the Drinking Water Research Foundation found that of all samples tested by NRDC, "federal FDA or EPA limits were allegedly exceeded only four times, twice for total coliforms and twice for fluorides."
Studies show that the plastics used for bottles contain chemicals having estrogenic activity, even when they claim otherwise. Although some of the bottled water contained in glass were found polluted with chemicals as well, the researchers believe some of the contamination of water in the plastic containers may have come from the plastic containers. Leaching of chemicals into the water is related to the plastic bottles being exposed to either low or high temperatures.
A 2018 study found that the vast majority of bottled water contains microplastics. Following this, the World Health Organization
The World Health Organization (WHO) is a list of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations which coordinates responses to international public health issues and emergencies. It is headquartered in Gen ...
has launched a review into the safety of drinking microplastics
Microplastics are "synthetic solid particles or polymeric matrices, with regular or irregular shape and with size ranging from 1 μm to 5 mm, of either primary or secondary manufacturing origin, which are insoluble in water." Microplastics a ...
. Analysis of some of the world's most popular bottled water brands found that more than 90% contained tiny pieces of plastic. The tests were carried out at the State University of New York at Fredonia
The State University of New York at Fredonia (alternatively SUNY Fredonia, Fredonia State, or Fredonia) is a public university in Fredonia, New York. It is the westernmost member of the State University of New York. Founded in 1826, it is the six ...
as part of a project involving original research and reporting by the US-based journalism organization Orb Media. Using a dye called Nile Red, which binds to free-floating pieces of plastic, the university's Sherri Mason found an average of 10 plastic particles per litre of water, each larger than the size of a human hair. Smaller particles assumed to be plastic but not positively identified were found as well – an average of 314 per litre.
In 2008, researchers from Arizona State University found that storing plastic bottles in temperatures at or above 60 °C can cause antimony
Antimony is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Sb () and atomic number 51. A lustrous grey metal or metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient t ...
to enter the water contained in the bottles. Therefore, frequently drinking from bottles stored in places such as cars during the summer months may have negative health effects.
Safety
There have been no major outbreaks of illness or serious safety concerns associated with bottled water in the past decade, an FDA official stated in testimony before a 9 July 2009 Congressional hearing. Conversely, as noted in the Drinking Water Research Foundation's (DWRF) 2013 report, ''Microbial Health Risks of Regulated Drinking Waters in the United States'', EPA researchers reported an estimated 16.4 million cases of acute gastrointestinal illness per year are caused by tap water. Subsequent research has estimated that number of illnesses to be closer to 19.5 million cases per year.
Bottled water versus carbonated beverages
Bottled noncarbonated drinking water competes in the marketplace with carbonated beverages (including carbonated water) sold in individual plastic bottles. Consumption of water often is considered a healthier substitute for sodas.
According to the Container Recycling Institute, sales of flavoured, non-carbonated drinks are expected to surpass soda sales by 2010. In response, Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola have introduced new carbonated drinks that are fortified with vitamins and minerals, Diet Coke Plus and Tava, marketed as "sparkling beverages".
Bottled water versus tap water
Bottled water may have reduced amounts of copper, lead, and other metal contaminants since it does not run through the plumbing pipes where tap water is exposed to metal corrosion; however, this varies by the household and plumbing system.
In much of the developed world, chlorine
Chlorine is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Cl and atomic number 17. The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the periodic table and its properties are mostly intermediate between ...
often is added as a disinfectant to tap water. If the water contains organic matter, this may produce other byproducts in the water such as trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids
Haloacetic acids or HAAs are carboxylic acids in which one or more halogen atoms take the place of hydrogen atoms in the methyl group of acetic acid. In a monohaloacetic acid, a single halogen replaces a hydrogen atom: for example, in bromoacetic ...
, which has shown to increase the risk of cancer. The level of residual chlorine found at around 0.0002 g per litre, which is too small to cause any health problems directly. The chlorine concentration recommended by World Health Organization
The World Health Organization (WHO) is a list of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations which coordinates responses to international public health issues and emergencies. It is headquartered in Gen ...
is between 0.0002 and 0.0005 g/L.
The documentary '' Tapped'' argues against the bottled water industry, asserting that tap water is healthier, more environmentally sustainable, and more ecologically sound than bottled water. The film focuses on the bottled water industry in the United States. The film has received largely positive reviews, and has spawned college campus groups such as Beyond the Bottle. Yet, as many people remain generally unaware of the negative health and environmental impacts associated with bottled water, recent research in environmental psychology
Environmental psychology is a branch of psychology that explores the relationship between humans and the external world. It examines the way in which the natural environment and our built environments shape us as individuals. Environmental psycho ...
has started to investigate how to reduce the public's consumption of bottled water.
See also
* Canned water
* International Bottled Water Association
* List of bottled water brands
*Reuse of water bottles
A reusable bottle is a bottle that can be reused, as in the case as by the original bottler or by end-use consumers. Reusable bottles have grown in popularity by consumers for both environmental and health safety reasons. Reusable bottles are one ...
References
Further reading
*
*
* United States. Congress. House. Committee on Energy and Commerce. Subcommittee on Commerce, Trade, and Consumer Protection
''Regulation of Bottled Water: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Commerce, Trade, and Consumer Protection of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, First Session, July 8, 2009.''
External links
{{Bottled water, state=expand