Bonifaciu Florescu
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Bonifaciu Florescu (; first name also Boniface, Bonifacio, Bonifati, last name also Floresco; born Bonifacius Florescu; May 17, 1848 – December 18, 1899) was a
Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
n
polygraph A polygraph, often incorrectly referred to as a lie detector test, is a pseudoscientific device or procedure that measures and records several physiological indicators such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin conductivity while a ...
, the illegitimate son of writer-revolutionary
Nicolae Bălcescu Nicolae Bălcescu () (29 June 181929 November 1852) was a Romanian Wallachian soldier, historian, journalist, and leader of the 1848 Wallachian Revolution. Early life Born in Bucharest to a family of low-ranking nobility, he used his mother ...
. Born secretly outside his parents' native
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...
, at Pest, he was taken by his aristocratic mother in France, growing up as an erudite Francophone and
Francophile A Francophile is a person who has a strong affinity towards any or all of the French language, History of France, French history, Culture of France, French culture and/or French people. That affinity may include France itself or its history, lang ...
. Florescu graduated from the
Lycée Louis-le-Grand The Lycée Louis-le-Grand (), also referred to simply as Louis-le-Grand or by its acronym LLG, is a public Lycée (French secondary school, also known as sixth form college) located on Rue Saint-Jacques (Paris), rue Saint-Jacques in central Par ...
and the
University of Rennes The University of Rennes (French: ''Université de Rennes'') is a public university, public research university located in Rennes, Upper Brittany, France. Originally founded in 1460, the university was split into two universities in 1970: Univers ...
, returning home at age 25 to become a successful lecturer, polemicist, and historian of culture. Influenced by his father's politics, he was for a while a prominent figure on the far-left of Romanian liberalism and
nationalism Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Theory, I ...
, which pitted him against the conservative society ''
Junimea ''Junimea'' was a Romanian literary society founded in Iași in 1863, through the initiative of several foreign-educated personalities led by Titu Maiorescu, Petre P. Carp, Vasile Pogor, Theodor Rosetti and Iacob Negruzzi. The foremost personali ...
'', and against his own conservative cousin,
Prime Minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
Ion Emanuel Florescu. The conflict led to his losing a professorship at
Iași University The Alexandru Ioan Cuza University (; acronym: UAIC) is a public university located in , Romania. Founded by an 1860 decree of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza, under whom the former was converted to a university, the University of , as it was named ...
and being sidelined when applying for chairs at the
University of Bucharest The University of Bucharest (UB) () is a public university, public research university in Bucharest, Romania. It was founded in its current form on by a decree of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza to convert the former Princely Academy of Bucharest, P ...
. His critique of ''Junimist'' literature, structured around a classical defense of prosody, inspired a
libel Defamation is a communication that injures a third party's reputation and causes a legally redressable injury. The precise legal definition of defamation varies from country to country. It is not necessarily restricted to making assertions ...
by
Mihai Eminescu Mihai Eminescu (; born Mihail Eminovici; 15 January 1850 – 15 June 1889) was a Romanians, Romanian Romanticism, Romantic poet, novelist, and journalist from Moldavia, generally regarded as the most famous and influential Romanian poet. Emin ...
—famously depicting Florescu as a "
homunculus A homunculus ( , , ; "little person", : homunculi , , ) is a small human being. Popularized in 16th-century alchemy and 19th-century fiction, it has historically referred to the creation of a miniature, fully formed human. The concept has root ...
". Florescu had significant success as a self-proclaimed
irredentist Irredentism () is one state's desire to annex the territory of another state. This desire can be motivated by ethnic reasons because the population of the territory is ethnically similar to or the same as the population of the parent state. Hist ...
, agitating for Romanian causes in disputed
Bukovina Bukovina or ; ; ; ; , ; see also other languages. is a historical region at the crossroads of Central and Eastern Europe. It is located on the northern slopes of the central Eastern Carpathians and the adjoining plains, today divided betwe ...
and
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
. Ultimately, however, he failed in his bid to rise through the National Liberal Party, as the latter moved to the center, and fell back on independent journalism, founding several periodicals of his own. He had a long but interrupted collaboration with another dissident liberal and poet,
Alexandru Macedonski Alexandru Macedonski (; also rendered as Al. A. Macedonski, Macedonschi or Macedonsky; 14 March 1854 – 24 November 1920) was a Romanian poet, novelist, dramatist and literary critic, known especially for having promoted French Symbolism (arts ...
, who co-opted him on his '' Literatorul'' editing team during the 1880s. A precursor, but not an affiliate, of the Romanian Symbolist movement, Florescu had steadier friendships with the younger Symbolists
Mircea Demetriade Mircea Constantin Demetriade (; also rendered as Demetriad, Dimitriade, Dimitriadi, or Demitriadi; September 2, 1861 – September 11, 1914) was a Romanian poet, playwright and actor, one of the earliest animators of the local Symbolist movement. ...
and
Iuliu Cezar Săvescu Iuliu Cezar Săvescu (September 22, 1866 – March 9, 1903) was a Romanian poet. Biography Born in Brăila to the civil servant Eulampiu Săvescu and his wife Fania, he attended primary school and the first years of high school in his native ci ...
. His main contribution to pre-Symbolist ''
belles-lettres () is a category of writing, originally meaning beautiful or fine writing. In the modern narrow sense, it is a label for literary works that do not fall into the major categories such as fiction, poetry, or drama. The phrase is sometimes used pej ...
'' is
prose poetry Prose poetry is poetry written in prose form instead of verse form while otherwise deferring to poetic devices to make meaning. Characteristics Prose poetry is written as prose, without the line breaks associated with poetry. However, it make ...
in the manner of
Catulle Mendès Catulle Mendès (; 22 May 1841 – 8 February 1909) was a French poet and man of letters. Early life and career Of Portuguese Jewish extraction, Mendès was born in Bordeaux. After childhood and adolescence in Toulouse, he arrived in Paris in 1 ...
. A committed bohemian, whose lifestyle interfered with his literary output and his teaching job at
Saint Sava Saint Sava (, ; Old Church Slavonic: ; Glagolitic: ; ; 1169 or 1174 – 14 January 1235/6), known as the Enlightener or the Illuminator, was a Serbs, Serbian prince and Eastern Orthodox Church, Orthodox monk, abbot of Studenica Monastery, Studeni ...
, Florescu is sometimes read as a herald of decadent writing. He was important to the Macedonskian Symbolists for his familiarity with French culture, but was primarily an expert in
18th-century literature Literature of the 18th century refers to world literature produced during the years 1700–1799. European literature in the 18th century European literature of the 18th century refers to literature (poetry, drama, satire, essays, and novels) pro ...
. His criticism, modeled on
Villemain Villemain is a Communes of France, commune in the Deux-Sèvres Departments of France, department in western France. See also *Communes of the Deux-Sèvres department References

Communes of Deux-Sèvres {{DeuxSèvres-geo-stub ...
,
Sainte-Beuve Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve (; 23 December 1804 – 13 October 1869) was a French literary critic. Early life He was born in Boulogne, educated there, and studied medicine at the Collège Charlemagne in Paris (1824–27). In 1828, he se ...
and Taine, was perceived as refined in its context, but later enlisted objections for its pedantry and amateurism. He was a prolific translator passionate about exotic topics, authoring some of the first Romanian versions of stories by
Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe (; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, poet, editor, and literary critic who is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales involving mystery and the macabre. He is widely re ...
.


Biography


Origins

Born a
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...
n subject, Bonifaciu Florescu descended from the boyar nobility: the Bălcescus recognized him as a family member; the Florescus, however, refused to accept that Nicolae Bălcescu was the father. His father's family, of lesser rank and prestige, had been founded by Father Necula, a Wallachian Orthodox parson, who purchased the Bălcești estate in 1766. Unusually rich for his social position, he bought for his sons small boyar offices. Despite taking the same name, Nicolae and his two brothers descended from the clan through their mother Zinca; she married ''
Pitar ''Pitar'' is a genus of saltwater clams, marine bivalve molluscs in the subfamily Callocardiinae of the family Veneridae, the Venus clams. The genus contains over 60 species. Species * '' Pitar aequinoctialis'' Fischer-Piette, 1969 * '' ...
'' Barbu sin Petre Căpitanul—a gentleman farmer of Prahova, who also owned townhouses in
Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
. Barbu's financial troubles and quick death contributed to the family's marginalization. The poet's mother, Alexandrina "Luxița" Florescu, claimed direct descent from Wallachian Prince
Michael the Brave Michael the Brave ( or ; 1558 – 9 August 1601), born as Mihai Pătrașcu, was the Prince of Wallachia (as Michael II, 1593–1601), Prince of Moldavia (1600) and ''de facto'' ruler of Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711), Transylvani ...
, and was the daughter of ''
Logothete Logothete (, ''logothétēs'', pl. λογοθέται, ''logothétai''; Med. , pl. ''logothetae''; ; ; ; , ''logotet'') was an administrative title originating in the eastern Roman Empire. In the middle and late Byzantine Empire, it rose to become ...
'' Iordache Florescu, as well as aunt of Ion Emanuel Florescu, the Wallachian militia chief.Călinescu, p. 530 The family also had
Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
and
Albanian Albanian may refer to: *Pertaining to Albania in Southeast Europe; in particular: **Albanians, an ethnic group native to the Balkans **Albanian language **Albanian culture **Demographics of Albania, includes other ethnic groups within the country ...
ancestors. Iordache, a Ghica on his mother's side, ran in the 1842 election for the Wallachian throne, under the ''
Regulamentul Organic ''Regulamentul Organic'' (, ; ; )The name also has plural versions in all languages concerned, referring to the dual nature of the document; however, the singular version is usually preferred. The text was originally written in French, submitt ...
'' regime; his wife, Anica, was a Soutzos.Lăcusteanu & Crutzescu, p. 270 At age 17, Luxița was married off to a Russian Pole, but divorced him in 1836, alleging that he was hypersexual; he was probably also an alcoholic. She may have then met Bălcescu at the Florescu home in Șerban-Vodă, Bucharest, which functioned as a club for progressive intellectuals; however, Bonifaciu was most likely conceived while the couple reunited in Paris. Reportedly, Bălcescu, ill with
tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB), also known colloquially as the "white death", or historically as consumption, is a contagious disease usually caused by ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can al ...
and absorbed by his conspiratorial work, informed Luxița that they could never be married, which she accepted. Youth from both families were deeply involved in the
Wallachian revolution of 1848 The Wallachian Revolution of 1848 was a Romanian liberal and nationalist uprising in the Principality of Wallachia. Part of the Revolutions of 1848, and closely connected with the unsuccessful revolt in the Principality of Moldavia, it sough ...
, which occurred some weeks after Bonifaciu's birth. Luxița was shielded by her brothers in the
Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from 1000 to 1946 and was a key part of the Habsburg monarchy from 1526-1918. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the Coro ...
, without informing Nicolae of her whereabouts or her pregnancy, until after she delivered. Bonifaciu was thus born in Pest; his date of birth is variously given as May 14, Alexandru Piru, "Florescu Bonifaciu", in Aurel Sasu (ed.), ''Dicționarul biografic al literaturii române'', Vol. I, p. 593. Pitești: Editura Paralela 45, 2004. May 17, or May 27. In July, he was baptized into Orthodoxy at a Pest chapel shared by the
Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
and
Romanian Orthodox The Romanian Orthodox Church (ROC; , ), or Romanian Patriarchate, is an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox Christian churches, and one of the nine patriarchates in the Eastern Orthodox Church. S ...
churches. The baptismal record omits mention of his father's family name, but indicates his godfather as Inochentie Chițulescu (future Bishop of Buzău). By July, Bălcescu had been appointed foreign minister of revolutionary Wallachia, but then a reshuffle pushed him into the background. Eventually, the
Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...
and Ottoman empires intervened militarily, and the revolutionaries were pushed into exile or imprisoned. Brothers Nicolae and Costache Bălcescu escaped to Paris, passing through insurgent Hungary; the third Bălcescu brother, Barbu, was taken to Istanbul as a hostage. Three of Luxița's brothers—Iancu, Dumitrache, and Costache Florescu—participated in the events, and played a part in the shootout with the loyalist Colonel Grigore Lăcusteanu, whom they eventually arrested. Unusually, Costache Florescu's daughter married Lăcusteanu's brother Iancu while the colonel was still in captivity. All three brothers were repressed during the foreign intervention: Iancu Florescu was arrested by the Russians and spent some eight years in
Siberia Siberia ( ; , ) is an extensive geographical region comprising all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has formed a part of the sovereign territory of Russia and its predecessor states ...
, returning after the
Crimean War The Crimean War was fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the Second French Empire, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861), Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont fro ...
removed Wallachia from the Russian sphere of influence; Costache and Dumitrache were taken into Ottoman custody, returning after nine years of exile in
Bursa Bursa () is a city in northwestern Turkey and the administrative center of Bursa Province. The fourth-most populous city in Turkey and second-most populous in the Marmara Region, Bursa is one of the industrial centers of the country. Most of ...
. While Iancu took up law practice, Dumitrache is best known for setting to music the poetry of
Vasile Alecsandri Vasile Alecsandri (; 21 July 182122 August 1890) was a Romanian patriot, poet, dramatist, politician and diplomat. He was one of the key figures during the 1848 revolutions in Moldavia and Wallachia. He fought for the unification of the Roma ...
. With material support from Chițulescu, Luxița and her son returned to Wallachia in 1850. Although she only formally adopted Bonifaciu in 1858, to solidify his claim to the Florescu estate, he grew up knowing that the exiled Bălcescu was his father. Prevented from returning home (with a brief exception in August 1852, when he only met Zinca at
Turnu Măgurele Turnu Măgurele () is a municipiu, city in Teleorman County, Romania, in the historical region of Muntenia. Developed nearby the site once occupied by the medieval port of Turnu fortress, Turnu, it is situated north-east of the confluence between ...
), Nicolae died in the Two Siciles (November 1852). His grave is presumed lost.


French studies and 1873 return

Luxița and Bonifaciu were also largely absent from Wallachia as the country merged with
Moldavia Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
into the
United Principalities The United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (), commonly called United Principalities or Wallachia and Moldavia, was the personal union of the Moldavia, Principality of Moldavia and the Wallachia, Principality of Wallachia. The union was ...
(the basis for modern Romania). Bonifaciu attended
Lycée Louis-le-Grand The Lycée Louis-le-Grand (), also referred to simply as Louis-le-Grand or by its acronym LLG, is a public Lycée (French secondary school, also known as sixth form college) located on Rue Saint-Jacques (Paris), rue Saint-Jacques in central Par ...
in Paris, living with his mother on Rue Saint-Jacques, and possibly obtaining a scholarship from the Romanian government. He grew up speaking French at home, and only later perfected his Romanian, which he always spoke with an accent and a
guttural R Guttural R is the phenomenon whereby a rhotic consonant (an "R-like" sound) is produced in the back of the vocal tract (usually with the uvula) rather than in the front portion thereof and thus as a guttural consonant. Speakers of languages ...
.Potra, p. 136 His impromptu versions of
Romanian orthography The Romanian alphabet is a variant of the Latin alphabet used for writing the Romanian language. It consists of 31 letters, five of which (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, and Ț) have been modified from their Latin originals for the phonetic requirements of t ...
reflected phonemic spelling with unusual consistency for his day, and they unwittingly recorded his own difficulties in pronouncing Romanian words. This trait was ridiculed by philologist Hanes Suchianu as the very "apex of phoneticism". He would also confuse working-class Romanians by
code-switching In linguistics, code-switching or language alternation occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation or situation. These alternations are generally intended to ...
between Romanian and French. In one instance, he asked a Bucharest
coachman A coachman is a person who drives a Coach (carriage), coach or carriage, or similar horse-drawn vehicle. A coachman has also been called a coachee, coachy, whip, or hackman. The coachman's first concern is to remain in full control of the hors ...
to drive him ''à la maison'' (French for "where I live"), only to discover that he was being taken instead to Malmaison prison.
Dumitru Karnabatt Dumitru or Dimitrie Karnabatt (last name also Karnabat, Carnabatt or Carnabat, commonly known as D. Karr; October 26, 1877 – April 1949) was a Romanian poet, art critic and political journalist, one of the minor representatives of Symbolism. He ...
, "Bucureștii de eri. Cafeneaua Fialkovschy", in '' Rampa'', February 28, 1925, p. 1
Familiarized with Bălcescu's works by age 17, Bonifaciu declared his father to have been a "genius", "Romania's only prose writer". He followed Nicolae's radical orientation, declaring the French Revolution as the "triumph of justice, liberty and equality, and a great step toward fraternity"; he also took up the cause of
Pan-Europeanism Pan-European identity is the sense of personal identification with Europe, in a cultural or political sense. The concept is discussed in the context of European integration, historically in connection with hypothetical proposals, but since t ...
, arguing for " one great European republic, as in America." Reading up on the events at home, Florescu was indignant about the 1866 coup against ''
Domnitor ''Prince Domnitor'', in full ''Principe Domnitor'' (Romanian pl. ''Principi Domnitori'') was the official title of the ruler of Romania between 1862 and 1881. It was usually translated as "prince regnant" in English and most other languages, ...
''
Alexandru Ioan Cuza Alexandru Ioan Cuza (, or Alexandru Ioan I, also Anglicised as Alexander John Cuza; 20 March 1820 – 15 May 1873) was the first ''domnitor'' (prince) of the Romanian Principalities through his double election as List of monarchs of Moldavia ...
. In his view, Cuza, albeit ruling with an "authoritarian hand", was preferable to the foreign-born replacement Carol of Hohenzollern. Passionate about literature, Florescu and his colleague
Frédéric Damé Frédéric and Frédérick are the French versions of the common male given name Frederick. They may refer to: In artistry: * Frédéric Back, Canadian award-winning animator * Frédéric Bartholdi, French sculptor * Frédéric Bazille, Impress ...
set up their own newspaper, ''L'Avenir'' ("The Future"), which only put out a few issues. Florescu was described by teachers and relatives as a charming but inattentive student, and was once moved to a remedial class, ultimately obtaining his ''
baccalauréat The ''baccalauréat'' (; ), often known in France colloquially as the ''bac'', is a French national academic qualification that students can obtain at the completion of their secondary education (at the end of the ''lycée'') by meeting certain ...
'' in August 1868. In October 1872, he graduated from the literature faculty of the
University of Rennes The University of Rennes (French: ''Université de Rennes'') is a public university, public research university located in Rennes, Upper Brittany, France. Originally founded in 1460, the university was split into two universities in 1970: Univers ...
. From mid 1873, he returned with his mother to Bucharest, where she became the curator of a
retirement home A retirement home – sometimes called an old people's home, old folks' home, or old age home, although ''old people's home'' can also refer to a nursing home – or rest home, is a multi-residence housing facility intended for the elderly. Ty ...
maintained by the
Sisters of Charity Many religious communities have the term Sisters of Charity in their name. Some ''Sisters of Charity'' communities refer to the Vincentian tradition alone, or in America to the tradition of Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton (whose sisters are also of ...
. Her son debuted in the Romanian press with an overview of history as reflected in
Romanian folklore The folklore of Romania is the collection of traditions of the Romanians. A feature of Romanian culture is the special relationship between folklore and the learned culture, determined by two factors. First, the rural character of the Romania ...
; it was hosted in ''
Românul ''Românul'' (, meaning "The Romanian"; originally spelled ''Romanulu'' or ''Românulŭ'', also known as ''Romînul'', ''Concordia'', ''Libertatea'' and ''Consciinti'a Nationala''), was a political and literary newspaper published in Bucharest, Ro ...
'', published by C. A. Rosetti (July–August 1873). On October 3, Florescu married Rose-Henriette Le Roho d'Alcobia (born 1849), the orphaned scion of an Anglo-French-Portuguese family. According to one account, they did not have any children of their own, but later adopted a boy named Ion.Potra, p. 140 Contrarily, literary historian
George Călinescu George Călinescu (; 19 June 1899 – 12 March 1965) was a Romanian literary critic, historian, novelist, academician and journalist, and a writer of classicist and humanist tendencies. He is currently considered one of the most important Romani ...
suggests that Ion was the couple's natural son, "a direct descendant of Nicolae Bălcescu".Călinescu, p. 1004 On October 5, following an examination performed by historian
Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu (; 26 February 1838 – ) was a Romanian writer and philologist who pioneered many branches of Romanian philology and history. Life He was born Tadeu Hâjdeu in Cristineștii Hotinului (now Kerstentsi in Chernivtsi ...
, Florescu had obtained a "provisional" professorate at the department of world literature within the literature faculty of
Iași University The Alexandru Ioan Cuza University (; acronym: UAIC) is a public university located in , Romania. Founded by an 1860 decree of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza, under whom the former was converted to a university, the University of , as it was named ...
. He thus replaced
Nicolae Ionescu Nicolae Ionescu (1820 in Bradu, Neamț County – January 24, 1905 in Bradu) was a Romanian politician, jurist and publicist, brother of the agronomist Ion Ionescu de la Brad. He was leader of the Free and Independent Faction, serving se ...
, who preferred to keep his seat in the Assembly of Deputies.Călinescu, p. 530; Potra, p. 136 Researcher George Porta suggests that Florescu never actually took hold of his chair, being snubbed by two successive Education Ministers:
Christian Tell Christian Tell (12 January 1808 – 4/16 February 1884) was a Transylvanian-born Wallachian and Romanian general and politician. Life and activity He was born in Brașov on 12 January 1808. He studied at the Saint Sava National College in Buch ...
and
Vasile Boerescu Vasile Boerescu (January 1, 1830 – November 18, 1883) was a journalist, lawyer and Romanian politician who served as the Minister of Justice, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Religion and Public Instruction and held other various go ...
. However, his introductory lesson was published in Hasdeu's newspaper, ''Columna lui Traian'', which also hosted Florescu's homage to the retiring poet
Grigore Alexandrescu Grigore Alexandrescu (; 22 February 1810, Târgoviște – 25 November 1885 in Bucharest) was a nineteenth-century Romanian poet and translator noted for his fables with political undertones. He founded a periodical, ''Albina Românească'' ...
. During his time in
Iași Iași ( , , ; also known by other #Etymology and names, alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the Cities in Romania, third largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical ...
, Florescu, supported by physician Anastasie Fătu, also founded and operated an
adult high school An adult high school or adult school is a high school facility designed for adult education. It is intended for adults who have not completed high school to continue their education. Some adult high schools offer child care, special integration prog ...
.Perpessicius (1943), p. 239


Clash with ''Junimea''

In April 1874, a conservative coalition that included ''
Junimea ''Junimea'' was a Romanian literary society founded in Iași in 1863, through the initiative of several foreign-educated personalities led by Titu Maiorescu, Petre P. Carp, Vasile Pogor, Theodor Rosetti and Iacob Negruzzi. The foremost personali ...
'' society of
Iași Iași ( , , ; also known by other #Etymology and names, alternative names), also referred to mostly historically as Jassy ( , ), is the Cities in Romania, third largest city in Romania and the seat of Iași County. Located in the historical ...
formed the national government, with
Lascăr Catargiu Lascăr Catargiu ( or Lascăr Catargi; 1 November 1823 – ) was a Romanian conservative statesman born in Moldavia. He belonged to an ancient Wallachian family, one of whose members had been banished in the 17th century by Prince Matei Basarab, ...
as
Prime Minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
. The cabinet had Bonifaciu's cousin, Ion Emanuel Florescu, for a
Defense Minister A ministry of defence or defense (see spelling differences), also known as a department of defence or defense, is the part of a government responsible for matters of defence and military forces, found in states where the government is divid ...
—described by critics as authoritarian in his handling of political opposition. Bonifaciu himself was dismissed immediately by the new Education Minister, ''Junimist'' ideologue
Titu Maiorescu Titu Liviu Maiorescu (; 15 February 1840 – 18 June 1917) was a Romanian literary critic and politician, founder of the ''Junimea'' Society. As a literary critic, he was instrumental in the development of Culture of Romania, Romanian culture in ...
, who "could not stand him." In his official report, Maiorescu noted that, although Florescu was an erudite, his peculiar teaching style was driving students away. This dispute doubled as a cultural conflict between liberals such as Florescu and ''Junimea''. Florescu spent much of his time in polemics with the minister, and also with the ''Junimist'' poet Mihail Eminescu. The latter scandal began in January 1876 with Florescu's derisive note in ''Românul''. Here, Florescu attacked ''Junimism'' (and implicitly Eminescu's work) as a "torrent of little poets"—although, in the same text, he praised Eminescu's lover Veronica Micle for her own "beautiful" verse. Declaring himself dissatisfied with the
assonance Assonance is the repetition of identical or similar phonemes in words or syllables that occur close together, either in terms of their vowel phonemes (e.g., ''lean green meat'') or their consonant phonemes (e.g., ''Kip keeps capes ''). However, in ...
of ''Junimist'' poetry, Florescu demanded a more thorough
literary consonance Consonance is a form of rhyme involving the repetition of identical or similar consonants in neighboring words whose vowel sounds are different (e.g., coming home, hot foot). Consonance may be regarded as the counterpart to the vowel-sound repet ...
. As noted later by the critic
Perpessicius Perpessicius (; pen name of Dumitru S. Panaitescu, also known as Panait Șt. Dumitru, D. P. Perpessicius and Panaitescu-Perpessicius; October 22, 1891 – March 29, 1971) was a Romanian literary historian and critic, poet, essayist and fiction wr ...
, this request was "bizarre" and "drunk on prosody", although Florescu had "his indisputable merits." Perpessicius also proposes that it formed part of a press campaign "in bad taste", "as vociferous as it was impotent", seeking to undermine ''Junimea''s steady rise, with Florescu "in so very many ways, from the pestering to the inept, ready to censor Eminescu's budding oeuvre." Florescu's review was immediately challenged by Nicolae Scurtescu, who sent ''Românul'' a letter in which he expressed solidarity with Eminescu, and asked to be struck out from Florescu's list of "good poets", suggesting that Florescu had no qualification to compile such lists. Eminescu would also respond later in 1876 with the
libel Defamation is a communication that injures a third party's reputation and causes a legally redressable injury. The precise legal definition of defamation varies from country to country. It is not necessarily restricted to making assertions ...
''Epistolă deschisă homunculului Bonifaciu'' ("An Open Letter to Bonifaciu the
Homunculus A homunculus ( , , ; "little person", : homunculi , , ) is a small human being. Popularized in 16th-century alchemy and 19th-century fiction, it has historically referred to the creation of a miniature, fully formed human. The concept has root ...
"). Its reference to a mysterious newspaper, ''Pruncul'' ("The Babe"), was later identified as a jibe at ''Românul'', whose predecessor was an 1848 sheet, '' Pruncul Român'' ("The Romanian Infant"). The "letter", written in tones of "rising anger",Călinescu, p. 470 reads: Călinescu finds the poem to be a "vigorous satire", its reference to "B. Florescu's 'oakum' brain ..describing quite well a fibrous arrhythmic state". By 1880, the "homunculus" imagery was rehashed for the early draft of an ample poem, '' Scrisoarea II'', part of which is specifically dedicated to ridiculing Eminescu's detractors. As noted by Perpessicius, Florescu, unlike Rosetti, was never mentioned in the more definitive satire, '' Scrisoarea III''. This, he suggests, may be a sign of his relative insignificance among Eminescu's enemies.


"Free" course and 1875 incidents

Overall, Potra notes, Florescu was largely unemployed, and pushed to make his living by giving private lessons in French—his students included the two daughters of physician Constantin Istrati and the future dramatist
Ioan Bacalbașa Ioan is a variation on the name John found in Aromanian, Romanian, Bulgarian, Russian, Welsh (), and Sardinian. It is usually masculine. The female equivalent in Romanian and Bulgarian is Ioana. In Russia, the name Ioann is usually reserved f ...
. "Turned proletarian", he and Rose-Henriette lived in rented rooms at Pasajul Roman. Maiorescu only allowed Florescu to teach an optional "free" course at the
University of Bucharest The University of Bucharest (UB) () is a public university, public research university in Bucharest, Romania. It was founded in its current form on by a decree of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza to convert the former Princely Academy of Bucharest, P ...
Faculty of Letters. The lessons were a corpus of "critical modern history" (published as a textbook in 1875), discussing such topics as progressivism, the ''
Ancien Régime ''Ancien'' may refer to * the French word for " ancient, old" ** Société des anciens textes français * the French for "former, senior" ** Virelai ancien ** Ancien Régime ** Ancien Régime in France {{disambig ...
'', British constitutionalism, and
German nationalism German nationalism () is an ideological notion that promotes the unity of Germans and of the Germanosphere into one unified nation-state. German nationalism also emphasizes and takes pride in the patriotism and national identity of Germans as ...
, as well as the genesis of Wallachian boyardom. They were also indirectly supervised from Paris by professor Henri Pigeonneau, who sent Florescu a bibliography. Although Florescu expressed his frustration over lacking oratorical skills, the lectures made him very popular with Bucharesters. Florescu's radicalism also brought him into contact with
Hristo Botev Hristo Botev (, ), born Hristo Botyov Petkov (Христо Ботьов Петков; – ), was a Bulgarian revolutionary and poet. Botev is considered by Bulgarians to be a symbolic historical figure and national hero. His poetry is a prim ...
, instigator of the
Bulgarian National Revival The Bulgarian Revival (, ''Balgarsko vazrazhdane'' or simply: Възраждане, ''Vazrazhdane'', and ), sometimes called the Bulgarian National Revival, was a period of socio-economic development and national integration among Bulgarian pe ...
, whom Florescu met in Bucharest and perhaps acquainted with the works of Bălcescu. Some controversy did occur locally when Florescu expressed his democratic beliefs in his university lectures, describing boyardom as a bane and congratulating his own family for giving up on privilege.Potra, p. 137 His early work as a polemicist includes two volumes of ''Etiam contra omnes'' ("Even against All"), published alongside the brochure ''Una suta de adevĕrurĭ'' ("A Hundred Truths"). The latter comprised
aphorism An aphorism (from Greek ἀφορισμός: ''aphorismos'', denoting 'delimitation', 'distinction', and 'definition') is a concise, terse, laconic, or memorable expression of a general truth or principle. Aphorisms are often handed down by tra ...
s tinged by anti-''Junimism'', originally appearing in the daily ''Telegraphul de Bucurescĭ'', where he also published essays discussing
Étienne de La Boétie Étienne or Estienne de La Boétie (; ; 1 November 1530 – 18 August 1563) was a French magistrate, classicist, writer, poet and political theorist, best remembered for his friendship with essayist Michel de Montaigne. His early political trea ...
's ''
Discourse on Voluntary Servitude The ''Discourse on Voluntary Servitude'' () is an essay by Étienne de La Boétie. The text was published clandestinely in 1577. Composition As it remained unpublished for so long after its composition, the date of preparation of the ''Discours ...
''. He kept a grudge against Maiorescu, and, in 1875 letters for ''Apărătorul Legeĭ'' newspaper, accused others, notably Cezar Bolliac, of behaving "like Maiorescu". Despite this, in 1877 Florescu was theater chronicler at the ''Junimea'' daily, ''
România Liberă Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to the east, and the Black Sea t ...
''. His journalism was by then prolific, with articles also taken up in ''Columna lui Traian'' and ''Românul'', and also in liberal papers such as ''Albine și Viespi'', ''Alegătorul'', and ''Revista Contimporană''. Some were encyclopedic overviews, with topics such as
Pre-Columbian Mexico The pre-Columbian (or prehispanic) history of the territory now making up the country of Mexico is known through the work of archaeologists and epigraphers, and through the accounts of Spanish conquistadores, settlers and clergymen as well as ...
(1875) and the
settlement of Iceland The settlement of Iceland ( ) is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the ninth century, when Norsemen, Norse settlers migrated across the North Atlantic. The reasons for the migration are uncertain: later in the Middle Ages Icel ...
(1877); others were the first in a series of ''Studiĭ literare'' ("Studies in Literature") where he carried on with critiques of prosody. Another contribution was as a translator, where he made local literary history with
Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe (; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, poet, editor, and literary critic who is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales involving mystery and the macabre. He is widely re ...
's " Tell-Tale Heart" in 1875, followed in 1876 by " The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar". Also in 1875, Florescu involved himself in the dispute between Romania and
Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...
, concerning the
Duchy of Bukovina The Duchy of Bukovina (; ; ) was a constituent land of the Austrian Empire from 1849 and a Cisleithanian crown land of Austria-Hungary from 1867 until 1918. Name The name ''Bukovina'' came into official use in 1775 with the region's annexation ...
—Romanian-inhabited, but taken by the
Austrian Empire The Austrian Empire, officially known as the Empire of Austria, was a Multinational state, multinational European Great Powers, great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the Habsburg monarchy, realms of the Habsburgs. Duri ...
following the rearrangement of 1775. His work, published as a brochure co-authored by Vasile Maniu, accused the Austrians of double-dealing and fraud perpetrated against Moldavia and the Ottomans. Such ideas endeared him to the Romanian nationalists in
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
, which was also under Austro-Hungarian rule. In that region, Florescu's work was displayed as an important contribution in ''Orientul Latin'', the nationalist, Pan-Latinist, anti-''Junimist'' review of Ioan Alexandru Lapedatu. Florescu also involved himself in the dispute over
Jewish emancipation Jewish emancipation was the process in various nations in Europe of eliminating Jewish disabilities, to which European Jews were then subject, and the recognition of Jews as entitled to equality and citizenship rights. It included efforts withi ...
: with his school friend Damé, he translated into French Hasdeu's ''Histoire de la tolérance religieuse en Roumanie'' ("History of Religious Tolerance in Romania"). In April 1875, with help from liberal agitators, Florescu seized the opportunity to lecture on Bukovina at the
Romanian Atheneum The Romanian Athenaeum () is a concert hall in the center of Bucharest, Romania, and a landmark of the Romanian capital city. Opened in 1888, the ornate, domed, circular building is the city's most prestigious concert hall and home of the "Geor ...
. The Catargiu government forbade it and threatened him with arrest, though he eventually found an open venue at Suhr Circus, between
Calea Victoriei Calea Victoriei (''Victory Avenue'') is a major avenue in central Bucharest. Situated in Sector 1, and having a length of , it leads from (which runs parallel to the Dâmbovița River) to the north and then northwest up to Piața Victoriei, w ...
and
Lipscani Lipscani is a street and a district of Bucharest, Romania, which from the Middle Ages to the early 19th century was the most important commercial area of the city and Wallachia. It is located near the ruins of the Curtea Veche, old Princely Court ...
. Despite his attested incompetence in public speaking, this event attracted a crowd comprising, in some reports, as many as 6,000 nationalists. Shortly after the Suhr Circus incident, Romanian liberal groups formed the National Liberal Party, which became focused on regaining power. For three weeks in April 1876, Florescu's cousin was the conservative Prime Minister of a mainly soldiers' cabinet. Outmaneuvered by the opposition, it fell and was replaced with a National Liberal government, headed by Manolache Costache Epureanu—himself replaced after the June election with
Ion Brătianu An ion () is an atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. The charge of an electron is considered to be negative by convention and this charge is equal and opposite to the charge of a proton, which is considered to be positive by convent ...
, supported by the party's radical, or "Red", majority.


''Literatorul''

During this episode of liberal triumph an intrigue, Florescu befriended the liberal poet
Alexandru Macedonski Alexandru Macedonski (; also rendered as Al. A. Macedonski, Macedonschi or Macedonsky; 14 March 1854 – 24 November 1920) was a Romanian poet, novelist, dramatist and literary critic, known especially for having promoted French Symbolism (arts ...
, who sympathized with him in his conflict with Maiorescu. Macedonski wrote a poem denouncing Maiorescu's "scholarly tribe" and Florescu's 1874 sacking. Between March and June, Florescu published his own newspaper, the republican and anti-conservative ''Stindardul'' ("The Flag"), alongside Macedonski and dramatist Pantazi Ghica; however, Macedonski soon quit the enterprise. As a "Red", Florescu tried but failed to present himself as a candidate in
Ilfov County Ilfov () is the Counties of Romania, county that surrounds Bucharest, the capital of Romania. It used to be largely rural, but, after the fall of communism, many of the county's villages and communes developed into high-income commuter towns, whi ...
: in primaries, his colleagues preferred
Eugeniu Stătescu Eugeniu Stătescu (25 December 1836 – 30 December 1905) was a Romanian politician who served as the Minister of Internal Affairs from 10 April 1881 until 8 June 1881 and as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 9 June 1881 until 30 July 1881 during ...
over him; in June 1876, he withdrew from ''Stindardul'', declaring himself exhausted by the elections and by his regular work, the "five hours of daily tutoring".Perpessicius (1943), p. 244 As noted by memoirist Constantin Bacalbașa, both Florescu and Macedonski had political ambitions and were very popular in liberal circles, but they were also "transient heroes, the sort that go down with their ephemeral wave." In July 1876, minister Gheorghe Chițu ruled Florescu's 1873 appointment valid, but only assigned him to a history-and-French teacher's position at Saint Sava High School. According to the satirical gazette '' Ghimpele'', Florescu, "erstwhile a communist, yesterday a liberal", taught his pupils extravagant and inaccurate lessons in history. It also alleged that he skipped classes in order to promote the magazine ''Nuvelistul'', on which he also worked as a writer. In 1877–1878, the
Romanian War of Independence The Romanian War of Independence () is the name used in Romanian historiography to refer to the phase of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), in which Romania, fighting on the Russian side of the war, gained independence from the Ottoman Empire. On ...
(or more specifically, Romania's contribution to the
Russo-Turkish War The Russo-Turkish wars ( ), or the Russo-Ottoman wars (), began in 1568 and continued intermittently until 1918. They consisted of twelve conflicts in total, making them one of the longest series of wars in the history of Europe. All but four of ...
) opened the way for the country's evolution into a
Kingdom of Romania The Kingdom of Romania () was a constitutional monarchy that existed from with the crowning of prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen as King of Romania, King Carol I of Romania, Carol I (thus beginning the Romanian royal family), until 1947 wit ...
(1880). Although independence occurred under a National Liberal mandate, Bonifaciu's cousin is widely credited with having helped modernize the
Romanian Land Forces The Romanian Land Forces () is the army of Romania, and the main component of the Romanian Armed Forces. Since 2007, full professionalization and a major equipment overhaul have transformed the nature of the Land Forces. The Romanian Land Force ...
and getting them battle-ready. Bonifaciu also contributed as a writer and humanitarian. In August 1877, he covered the troops' inspection for the newspaper ''Războiul'', announcing that their bravery "defied death itself". His poetry collection ''Quelques vers'' specified that it collected money ''au profit des blessés'' ("to help the wounded"). Meanwhile, Florescu saw himself as fit to occupy the vacated French-language chair at Bucharest University. However, this was converted into a
Romance studies Romance studies or Romance philology (; ; ; ; ; ; ) is an academic discipline that covers the study of the languages, literatures, and cultures of areas that speak Romance languages. Romance studies departments usually include the study of Spa ...
chair by government order, then assigned to Gian Luigi Frollo—the enduring perception was that Brătianu was clamping down on French influence, for fear of upsetting
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
. Juliette Adam, "Lettres sur la politique extérieure", in '' La Nouvelle Revue'', Vol. 72, 1891, p. 412 Florescu tried but failed to obtain a professorship in psychology and aesthetics at Bucharest University, and narrowly lost the race for the Romance chair. From January 1880, with Macedonski and Th. M. Stoenescu, Florescu edited a cultural review, '' Literatorul'', where he published notes on the
Franco-Prussian War The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the War of 1870, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 Janua ...
Potra, p. 142 and his new
prose poetry Prose poetry is poetry written in prose form instead of verse form while otherwise deferring to poetic devices to make meaning. Characteristics Prose poetry is written as prose, without the line breaks associated with poetry. However, it make ...
, the "watercolors" and "sanguines".Marino, p. 521 The embryo of a local Symbolist movement, ''Literatorul'' soon became noted for its prolonged polemic with Eminescu, which was carried by both Macedonski and Florescu. The latter also censured Macedonski's estranged friend,
Duiliu Zamfirescu Duiliu Zamfirescu (; 30 October 1858 – 3 June 1922) was a Romanian novelist, poet, short story writer, lawyer, nationalist politician, journalist, diplomat and memoirist. In 1909, he was elected a member of the Romanian Academy, and, for a whi ...
, who defected to ''Junimea''. When he later alleged that this was for material gain, Zamfirescu simply dismissed him as a ''zevzec'' ("nitwit"). Florescu himself eventually withdrew from the enterprise after a mysterious quarrel with Macedonski, who then accused him, also in ''Literatorul'', of having squandered public money with his teaching. However, according to scholar
Șerban Cioculescu Șerban Cioculescu (; 7 September 1902 – 25 June 1988) was a Romanian literary critic, literary historian and columnist who was born in Drobeta-Turnu Severin and died in Bucharest. He held teaching positions in Literature of Romania, Romanian ...
, Florescu and Stonescu, together with poet-actor
Mircea Demetriade Mircea Constantin Demetriade (; also rendered as Demetriad, Dimitriade, Dimitriadi, or Demitriadi; September 2, 1861 – September 11, 1914) was a Romanian poet, playwright and actor, one of the earliest animators of the local Symbolist movement. ...
—all three "faint and subdued figures"—, remained the last Macedonski loyalists as the latter fell into disgrace. Similarly, critic Adrian Marino notes that, while Macedonski's program was "constructive, evolved and receptive of the most fecund modern orientations", its main adherents, Florescu included, were "insignificant ndobscure". A Macedonskian disciple, Alexandru Obedenaru, reports that the two senior writers were still sitting at the same table in Terasa Otetelișanu during late 1883, when they were both assaulted by some of Eminescu's followers. Florescu was pummeled by the intruders (and also sprayed with
carbonated water Carbonated water is water containing dissolved carbon dioxide gas, either artificially injected under pressure, or occurring due to natural geological processes. Carbonation causes small bubbles to form, giving the water an effervescent quali ...
by Costache Câmpineanu, who was aiming a
soda siphon Soda or SODA may refer to: *Soft drink, a sweetened, carbonated, and usually flavored drink Chemistry * Some chemical compounds containing sodium ** Sodium carbonate, washing soda or soda ash ** Sodium bicarbonate, baking soda ** Sodium ...
at them, and missed). Alexandru Obedenaru, "Amintiri. Bătălia din cafeneaua literară dela 1883", in ''
Adevărul (; meaning "The Truth", formerly spelled ''Adevĕrul'') is a Romanian daily newspaper, based in Bucharest. Founded in Iași, in 1871, and reestablished in 1888, in Bucharest, it was the main left-wing press venue to be published during the Kingd ...
'', October 24, 1933, pp. 1–2
Florescu's own monthly, ''Portofoliul Român'' ("The Romanian Portfolio"), appeared between March 1881 and June 1882, hosting poetry by Demetriade and Florescu's "watercolors",X., "Bibliografie. ''Portofoliul''", in '' Convorbiri Literare'', Issue 6/1881, p. 286 as well as his various historical essays—much praised by the Romanophile Frenchman Abdolonyme Ubicini. In a note published therein, he revealed that ''Portofoliul'' only existed because of Petru Grădișteanu, whose recent law on debt relief had spared Florescu from his creditors. This news was reviewed with amusement in ''Junimea''s '' Convorbiri Literare'', which remarked that literature "owes so much to Mr. Grădișteanu". The same magazine derided Florescu's attempt to summarize philosophically the
history of Austria The history of Austria covers the history of Austria and its predecessor states. In the late Iron Age Austria was occupied by people of the Hallstatt Celtic culture ( 800 BC), they first organized as a Celtic kingdom referred to by the Romans a ...
on five pages: "The bigger the country, the shorter its philosophy." Additionally, Florescu announced that he was working on a fragmentary treatise on the historiosophy of the Balkans, seen by him as a single cultural and racial space. His other contributions included a rhyming obituary to painter Ion Andreescu, taken up in ''Binele Public'' newspaper and then carved on Andreescu's tombstone.Potra, p. 141


Bohemian

In 1884, the Florescus moved out of Pasajul Roman and to a small house on Calea Victoriei, with Bonifaciu founding a literary Serial (publishing), serial, ''Biblioteca Omuluĭ de Gust'' ("The Library of Tasteful Men"), where he issued the collected poems of Alexandru Depărățeanu. The year also witnessed a release of his collected historical essays, as ''Memento de istorie universală sau Istoria în tablourĭ'' ("World History Memento or, History in Scenes"); his translation of Musset's play "Never Swear That You Be Not Forsworn"; and his critical edition of Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, Count Buffon's ''Discours sur le style''. In August of the following year, ''Românul'' had a row with the National Liberal Party, causing Florescu to side with the former. The core issue was again nationalism: Prime Minister Brătianu gave in to Austro-Hungarian demands, and expelled a group of Transylvanians, including Nicolae Ciurcu, publisher of ''L'Indépendance Roumaine''. When ''Românul'' protested and was raided by police, Florescu showed up to express solidarity, one of several National Liberals to do so—the others were Grădișteanu, Dimitrie Gianni, and George D. Pallade. In 1886, his essay on the 1848 revolution was taken up by the same ''L'Indépendance Roumaine''. By then, the historian lived a bohemian life, and was a regular at Fialcovsky Coffeehouse, where he appeared "jocular and always absentminded", or even: "the most absentminded man the world has ever known." According to the recollections of Mariu Theodorian-Carada, although "Boniface Florescu" and Demetriade made efforts to keep it alive, by 1886 "Fialkovsky was dwindling". Potra notes that Florescu was memorable as a Bucharest "type", "with his quite disheveled appearance, his paddling, slow and measured stride, and above all with his way of life". Reportedly, he always wore just one galosh,Maica Smara, Baba Vișa, "Răvașe Intime. Un salon literar în 1883. — Veronica Micle și Mihail Eminescu", in ''Cultura Poporului'', Issue 323/1930, p. 3 or sometimes one of his wife's boots,Radu Bogdan, "Din ineditele harului arghezian", in ''România Literară'', Issue 26/1993, p. 13 and his suits were covered in ink blots.Potra, p. 139 Obedenaru describes him as the Romanian answer to an "Assyrian people, Assyrian Mesopotamian divination, mage", who looked like he had never seen a barber, and whose "black frock was always stuffed with books and manuscripts." Gheorghe Gh. Longinescu, who was schooled at Saint Sava, recalls that his teacher had an unusual, crooked, stride, which matched his handwriting. An unnamed Saint Sava alumnus recalled in 1926: "Just about every day, he would walk the streets reading from a newspaper or a book, and, since he was shortsighted, he kept [it] very close to his eyes, and so he bumped into streetlights or street corners, after which he would present his excuses." Carol I of Romania, Carol, by then King of Romania, allegedly kept informed about Florescu's lifestyle, and called him out as Romania's ''Wiktionary:Rumpelkammer, Rumpelkammer'' ("junkroom"). The writer Maica Smara, who shared a home with Bonifaciu, Henriette-Rose, and sculptor Ion Georgescu in the 1880s, recalls that they "never once opened a window", and notes: "hoopoes did better housecleaning than them." Physician Constantin Dimitrescu-Severeanu, who visited his home, records that both Florescu slept on a pile of hay, and that Bonifaciu looked like "he never washed his face more than thrice a year."Crutzescu, p. 179 Florescu was a heavy drinker and smoker, and, according to another one-time student, Constantin Kirițescu, only seemed at ease in coffeehouses and bars; he despised Saint Sava and, with time, only showed up for that work because it paid a salary. A rumor later recorded by poet Tudor Arghezi has it that he let all his students pass the final exams if they bought one of his books—Florescu himself handed them their copies, after rummaging through a coffer that also included "his and his wife's dirty linen", as well as "Swiss-cheese rind". According to Dr. Severeanu, he borrowed money from both friends and students, promising that they were for him to write a new book. Longinescu additionally claims that Florescu was "unusually cultured, but lacked common sense", and so the victim of "countless student pranks". Among the students who remained loyal to Florescu was the poet
Iuliu Cezar Săvescu Iuliu Cezar Săvescu (September 22, 1866 – March 9, 1903) was a Romanian poet. Biography Born in Brăila to the civil servant Eulampiu Săvescu and his wife Fania, he attended primary school and the first years of high school in his native ci ...
, who, in 1886, also became a member of Macedonski's circle. While his picturesque demeanor was laughed at, Florescu's erudition was acclaimed, in particular concerning his passionate Saint Sava lessons about 18th-century French literature, which was regarded as his main field of expertise. Novelist Gala Galaction, who studied in a parallel class, under Tănase Tănăsescu, recalled in 1930 that Florescu was dismissive toward his colleagues, but also that he had reason be proud: "haughty, daydreaming, with something missing upstairs, [he was] still one great scholar". The courses were published in several installments, from 1887 to 1893, followed by the book edition of ''Studiĭ literare''. In April 1888, Macedonski and Florescu took over management of ''România Literară'' review from Dumitru Constantinescu-Teleormăneanu, D. Teleor; it survived until 1889. Also in 1889, Florescu translated
Catulle Mendès Catulle Mendès (; 22 May 1841 – 8 February 1909) was a French poet and man of letters. Early life and career Of Portuguese Jewish extraction, Mendès was born in Bordeaux. After childhood and adolescence in Toulouse, he arrived in Paris in 1 ...
' ''Imagerie parisienne'', adding his own "Romanian Sanguines", and returned to the University of Bucharest with another "free" course, this time on French literature. By then, he had joined several members of the ''Literatorul'' school who were migrating toward ''Revista Nouă'', put out by Hasdeu and featuring authors disliked by Macedonski. Interested in Kardecist spiritism, spiritism, from about 1890 Florescu also attended Hasdeu's ''séances'', alongside Ghenadie Petrescu, Bishop Ghenadie, George Ionescu-Gion, and Ioan S. Nenițescu; Theodor Speranția acted as Mediumship, medium. In 1892, he produced a volume of his collected poetry, as ''Ritmurĭ și rime'' ("Rhythms and Rhymes"). Its theoretical notes on prosody relaunched the attack on Eminescu, depicting him and the younger Alexandru Vlahuță as "enemies of rhythm and rhyme"; of the latter two, he favored rhythm, and translated a fragment from Victor Hugo in blank verse, to prove his point. The book also featured his renditions of poems by: Henri Auguste Barbier, Mellin de Saint-Gelais, Charles Baudelaire, Pierre de Ronsard, Alfred de Musset, Clément Marot, François Rabelais, Isaac de Benserade, Paul Scarron, Alexandre Soutzo, Ponce Denis Écouchard Lebrun, Ponce Lebrun, and Charles Rivière Dufresny.Teodorescu ''et al.'', p. 331 His work of the period also covered selections from other classics and moderns of French literature: Molière, Voltaire, Rodolphe Töpffer, Alexandre Dumas, Edgar Quinet, George Sand, Henri Murger, Paul Armand Silvestre, Théodore de Banville, and José-Maria de Heredia; more exotically, he also rendered into Romanian works by Walter Scott and Fernán Caballero, as well as samples of Literature of Madagascar, Malagasy and Indian poetry. Also publishing in Giurgiu an anthology of 17th-century French literature, 17th-century poetry in French, he moved house closer to Saint Sava in 1891, at a new address on Soarelui Street, which also became the editorial offices of his new gazette. Called ''Dumineca'' ("The Sunday"), and published to February 1891, it was co-edited by Demetriade and Săvescu, and possibly managed by the latter.


1890s irredentism

A while after, Florescu's cousin, a prominent figure in the Conservative Party (Romania, 1880–1918), Liberal Conservative Party, briefly served as Prime Minister. Reportedly, Bonifaciu had hopes that Ion Emanuel would reestablish the Bucharest French-language chair and assign him to it, but the relevant minister, G. Dem. Teodorescu, vetoed any such move. The premier was eventually sidelined from within the party by Catargiu, and lost a vote of no confidence, ushering in the 1892 Romanian general election, February 1892 elections; he died in Paris in May 1893. Around that time, Bonifaciu had begun writing a biography of his father, in French; unpublished, it was later preserved by the Bălcescu Memorial Museum. With Demetriade, he became a regular contributor to Săvescu's own literary magazine, launched in 1893 as ''Liga Literară''. Florescu was also a regular at Grigore Tocilescu's scientific journal, ''Revista pentru Istorie, Arheologie și Filologie''. Tocilescu, his cousin thrice removed, allowed him to publish his notes on Bălcescu's complex mediation between the Hungarians and Romanians of Transylvania. His own hard-line stance on the Transylvanian issue, expressed during the ''Transylvanian Memorandum'' incident of 1892, alienated him further from both dominant parties. By November 1893, he was editing a newspaper called ''Irredenta Română'' ("The Romanian Irredenta"), his contribution there derided by the National Liberal Dimitrie Sturdza. Sturdza argued that Florescu's goal of annexing Transylvania to the Romanian kingdom was unrealistic; he also declared that such radicalism was only serving Romania's enemies, with Florescu and his colleagues "either sold out or very incompetent and stupid." Joining the nonpartisan Cultural League for the Unity of All Romanians, Florescu was a direct contributor to its irredentist propaganda, working alongside the Italian sympathizer Roberto Fava. He also helped the young nationalist liberal, Take Ionescu, polishing his letters of protest against Austria-Hungary, written in French. As Ionescu recalled decades later: "Bonifaciu was a veritable savant, but had endured the unrepentant bohemian. He only worked when we pressed him to, with us looking over his shoulder." During this stage of his life, Florescu became close friends with Georges Bibesco, French-speaking son of List of rulers of Wallachia, Prince Gheorghe Bibescu (whom his father and uncles had deposed in 1848). He translated Bibesco's defensive biography of his father, which ran at over 1200 pages in the printed edition of 1893–1894. As he noted in a dedication to Bibesco, he considered him a friend through their shared Francophilia, but nonetheless a political adversary. Bibesco then enlisted Florescu's services in clearing Prince Gheorghe of the allegations that he intended to concede all of Wallachia's mining industry to Russian venture capitalists. Florescu also worked with Theodor Assan and A. Dobrovici on a history of the United Principalities, published as ''Unirea Română'' ("The Romanian Unification"), and translated Bibesco's tract on the history of Wallachia and Moldavia under ''
Regulamentul Organic ''Regulamentul Organic'' (, ; ; )The name also has plural versions in all languages concerned, referring to the dual nature of the document; however, the singular version is usually preferred. The text was originally written in French, submitt ...
''. Also in 1894, Florescu was an unsuccessful candidate for the vacated chair of medieval and modern history at Bucharest University—a position ultimately taken up by Nicolae Iorga in 1895. According to historian Lucian Nastasă, his "permanent failure" to obtain academic credentials had an explanation "as plain as they get: his attitude was openly and actively anti-''Junimist''." Reflecting back on the period in 1939, Iorga himself noted: "Shame that in this literary world of ours, guided by groups and interests, that poor man never heard a good word for that consuming labor of his and for his true talent, inherited from his father."Iorga (1939), p. 339


Final activities

Florescu gathered his ''Literatorul'' pieces as ''Aquarele și poeziĭ în proză'' ("Watercolors and Prose Poems"), with contributions by Demetriade and a C. Drăgulinescu, and with samples from Murger. His work for 1894 additionally included the first volume of a French–Romanian dictionary (comprising 6 volumes in all), followed in 1895 by an overview of French poetry, French lyrical poetry "between the 10th and 20th centuries". In his final years, Florescu made one more attempt at founding a review—the 1894 weekly ''Dacia Viitoare'' ("Future Dacia")—and contributed an overview of the Revolt of Horea, Cloșca and Crișan, Horea–Cloșca rebellion to the Symbolist journal ''Revista Orientală''. Together with I. S. Spartali, he translated one of Gustave Flaubert's lesser known works, ''Le Candidat'', which was published by ''România Literară'' in 1897. According to Arghezi, Florescu was mainly focused on setting up his own printing press, and bought himself samples of movable type; beset by financial troubles, he would then sell his letters by the pound, asking: "'Would anyone like to buy the letter A or the letter P?' They all laughed at him." He eventually resigned from Saint Sava, but continued to teach history and French at Mihai Viteazul National College (Bucharest), Mihai Viteazul High School, at the military high school, and at the Saint Nephon seminary. His late experiments in wisdom poetry appeared in the Transylvanian ''Vatra (Romanian magazine), Vatra''. For a while director of a new magazine, ''Țara Literară'' ("The Literary Country"), he was also a contributor to Ion Livescu's ''Revista Theatrelor'', aimed at the community of actors and theater aficionados. Livescu saw him as one of the great critics in the field, equal to Ionescu-Gion and Grigore Ventura. In 1896, his and Demetriade's informal literary circle at Fialcovsky was joined by the anarchist and art promoter Alexandru Bogdan-Pitești. That year, Săvescu and Florescu began translating from a history of Albanian literature (in Italian, by Alberto Straticò). By then, Florescu had published over 200 books, comprising his own works alongside translations, and had had his own verse anthologized by poet Radu D. Rosetti (in ''Cartea Dragosteĭ'', 1896). Before August 1899, Florescu's work was hampered by an illness, later diagnosed as ventricular hypertrophy; he was living with his family in a small house on Speranței Street, north of Colțea Hospital. Luxița Florescu died in October of that year, aged 83, and Bonifaciu only two months later, on December 18. Demetriade unexpectedly dropped by on a visit just after his friend's death, recalling: "he had woken up more joyful than ever. Always one to enjoy a pun, he asked his wife, whose name was Rose, to hand him a rose that had been left in some glass. Just after Madam Florescu handed him that flower, the soul of this man, always a poet, went out with the perfume of the rose." A brief obituary in ''Literatorul'' credited him as someone "illustrious but unhappy", who "stood up to the intellectual degeneracy into which our country was continuously pushed." He was buried in the family crypt at Țigănești Monastery, next to his mother, with a funeral ceremony attended by the Bucharest aristocracy and the Saint Sava students. The grave has since been lost during extensive repair work on the monastery grounds.


Literary work

George Călinescu George Călinescu (; 19 June 1899 – 12 March 1965) was a Romanian literary critic, historian, novelist, academician and journalist, and a writer of classicist and humanist tendencies. He is currently considered one of the most important Romani ...
saw Florescu as a characteristic product of the
Lycée Louis-le-Grand The Lycée Louis-le-Grand (), also referred to simply as Louis-le-Grand or by its acronym LLG, is a public Lycée (French secondary school, also known as sixth form college) located on Rue Saint-Jacques (Paris), rue Saint-Jacques in central Par ...
, his didactic art "decent" but "convoluted and timid, overwhelmed by ideas of classicism". His lyrical poetry respects all the criteria that he wanted to impose on Eminescu; nonetheless, critics argue, it is not ungraceful, nor devoid of sentiment. However, according to Potra, his 1883 epitaph for Ion Andreescu is "very dull, in pointless verses which tell us nothing about the value of our great painter." As seen by comparatist Marin Bucur, Florescu's work in verse was already culturally irrelevant by 1875. As a literary innovator directly inspired by
Catulle Mendès Catulle Mendès (; 22 May 1841 – 8 February 1909) was a French poet and man of letters. Early life and career Of Portuguese Jewish extraction, Mendès was born in Bordeaux. After childhood and adolescence in Toulouse, he arrived in Paris in 1 ...
, Florescu tied to popularize a genre
prose poetry Prose poetry is poetry written in prose form instead of verse form while otherwise deferring to poetic devices to make meaning. Characteristics Prose poetry is written as prose, without the line breaks associated with poetry. However, it make ...
"from life", the so-called "watercolors" or "sanguines". According to Adrian Marino, these were among the more adequate and modern samples of '' Literatorul'' prose—alongside those by Săvescu, Constantin Cantilli, and Dumitru Constantinescu-Teleormăneanu, D. Teleor; the rest were "tendentious, abstract", and "dependent" on Macedonski's verdicts. Received with sarcasm by other critics, they include fragments about blind and insane children, or about children sleeping in each other's arms, and, as comparatist argues, were "experiments ..pushed into oblivion" by the more mature Symbolist prose poetry of Ștefan Petică (ca. 1900). Florescu's epistolary novel, ''Etiam contra omnes'', depicts the worldview of "Recaredo", a Peruvian Kardecist spiritism, spiritist and Pan-Latinist intellectual. It impressed a young Take Ionescu, who found Recaredo to be the perfect human, and his racial ideology a symbol of Romania's own discords with her various neighbors. As Florescu informed his readers, these were "pages written at a time when only literature was my comfort"—words expressing, again, his enmity for ''Junimea''. The novel, Ionescu believed, had a mission to "instill Romanianism", and also to cultivate Greece–Romania relations, solidarity between Romanians and Greeks. Florescu also earned some attention as a literary essayist, popularizer, and critic—much inspired by four scholars, whom he deemed the elite of French literature: Abel-François Villemain,
Sainte-Beuve Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve (; 23 December 1804 – 13 October 1869) was a French literary critic. Early life He was born in Boulogne, educated there, and studied medicine at the Collège Charlemagne in Paris (1824–27). In 1828, he se ...
, Hippolyte Taine, and Emile Hennequin.Bucur, p. 88 Călinescu stresses that Florescu's opening lesson of 1873 was "a lamentable rigmarole that addressed the issue of historical objectivity". Later tracts were "wordy, without proper ranking of values". According to Bucur, Florescu was an "amateur", "textbook cultivated", "a cultural journalist enthusiastic about beauty and culture, taking pains not to fatigue a public that cannot sustain the effort." According to Iorga, his exposition was "always lively, not without fortunate characterizations"—such as when Florescu depicted Georges Danton, Danton as a "poor man's Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, Mirabeau". Overall, however, Iorga referred to Florescu as a "bizarre" or "weird" author. Similarly, the anti-Symbolist Ilarie Chendi viewed Florescu as "cultured, but ill-regulated".Ilarie Chendi, "Viața literară. Iarăș despre decadenții noștri.—Pe cine prețuesc ei.—Pe cine prețuim noi?—Un decadent simpatic.—Cei mărunți", in ''Tribuna'', Issue 261/1909, p. 1 Although marginally supportive of Symbolism, Florescu was noticeably unimpressed by its herald Baudelaire, and, Bucur writes, "understood nothing from Stéphane Mallarmé, Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine, Verlaine". Chendi saw Florescu as the instigator of Romania's Decadent movement, which revolved around a cult for Baudelaire; however, he believed that Florescu's particular contribution was reviving another cult, that of romantic poets: Ion Heliade Rădulescu, Dimitrie Bolintineanu, and Alexandru Depărățeanu, whom Florescu rated "above Eminescu". In 1878, he also described a non-Symbolist poet, Ronetti Roman, as a master, Romania's answer to Musset and Heinrich Heine. Some reviewers attribute Macedonski's affection for Florescu to the latter's "attachment to French culture" or, more precisely, to Macedonski's snobbery: "A writer turned proletarian and with relations all across the world, who descended from
Michael the Brave Michael the Brave ( or ; 1558 – 9 August 1601), born as Mihai Pătrașcu, was the Prince of Wallachia (as Michael II, 1593–1601), Prince of Moldavia (1600) and ''de facto'' ruler of Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711), Transylvani ...
, from N. Bălcescu, and from some of the leading princely families, with relatives in Portugal, England and India—that catered to Macedonski's preferences."


Legacy

Florescu was survived by both his wife and his son. In 1900, Henriette-Rose took a small pension from the state, awarded to her by a review committee which included Costache Bălcescu. She lived for 28 more years, to January 1928. Ion, a general in the
Romanian Land Forces The Romanian Land Forces () is the army of Romania, and the main component of the Romanian Armed Forces. Since 2007, full professionalization and a major equipment overhaul have transformed the nature of the Land Forces. The Romanian Land Force ...
, married in February 1910 Elena Kalinderu, a relative of agriculturist and art collector Ioan Kalinderu. In early 1927, he was serving as a general secretary in the Ministry of National Defence (Romania), Ministry of War, and tasked with purchasing weapons in the Kingdom of Italy. This activity was scrutinized by a fellow general, Gheorghe Cantacuzino-Grănicerul, who noted it as controversial; the two men dueled over these allegations. According to Cantacuzino and his witnesses, he was first wounded, and then disgraced when he attempted an underhand stab at his adversary. Florescu Jr had two sons of his own. One of them, Mircea Ioan, was born in 1912. He died in July 1927, after engaging in reckless driving through Văcărești, Bucharest, Văcărești. The general's other child was judge Ion "Nelu" Florescu, who emigrated to Brazil and was still alive in 1941. Bonifaciu Florescu's work and family history gained more exposure after the King Michael's Coup, August 1944 coup and during early Communist Romania, Romanian communism, when left-wing ideologies turned Bălcescu into their hero. At the time, Potra notes, the Florescus came to accept Bonifaciu's paternity, published secret notes and rare photographs, and even helped Camil Petrescu write his romanticized biography of the revolutionary. In the 1950s, Historiography in the Soviet Union, Soviet historiography proposed that Florescu was secretly a Communards, Communard, and that he supported Sergey Nechayev, the Russian revolutionist, providing him with his own passport. The claim was reviewed with skepticism by the Romanian scholar Georges Haupt, who noted that "Florescu" was actually a certain N. F. Melediu. As argued in the 1980s by Potra, the real Florescu had been causally forgotten, despite being both Bălcescu's heir and, on his own, "a distinguished scholar, a true ''Encyclopédistes, encyclopédiste''."Potra, pp. 129–130


Published books

*''Etiam contra omnes'' (2 vols.), Bucharest, 1875 *''Una suta de adevĕrurĭ'', Bucharest, 1875 *''Cursu facultativu de istoria moderna critica'', Bucharest, 1875 *''Răpirea Bucovineĭ'' (with Vasile Maniu), Bucharest, 1875 *''Quelques vers au profit des blessés'', Bucharest, 1877 *''Memento de istorie universală sau Istoria în tablourĭ'', Bucharest, 1883 *''Curs metodic de limba francĭuzèscă'', Bucharest, 1887 *''Sanguine'' (translated from
Catulle Mendès Catulle Mendès (; 22 May 1841 – 8 February 1909) was a French poet and man of letters. Early life and career Of Portuguese Jewish extraction, Mendès was born in Bordeaux. After childhood and adolescence in Toulouse, he arrived in Paris in 1 ...
and followed by ''Sanguine românești''), Bucharest, 1889 *''Morceaux choisis, XVII-e siècle. Poésie'', Giurgiu, 1889 *''Cours de littérature française'' (2 vols.), Bucharest, 1890 *''Ritmurĭ și rime'', Bucharest, 1892 *''Studiĭ literare'' (2 vols.), Bucharest, 1892–1893 *''Aquarele și poeziĭ în proză'', Bucharest, 1894 *''Dicționar franceso–român'' (6 vols.), Bucharest, 1894 *''Unirea Română'' (with Theodor Assan and A. Dobrovici), Bucharest, 1894 *''La poésie lyrique française du X-ème au XX-ème siècle. I: Du X-ème au XIX-ème siècle'', Bucharest, 1895


Notes


References

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