The black falcon (''Falco subniger'') is a medium-large

falcon Falcons () are birds of prey in the genus ''Falco'', which includes about 40 species. Some small species of falcons with long, narrow wings are called hobbies, and some that hover while hunting are called kestrels. Falcons are widely distrib ...

that is

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...

. It can be found in all mainland states and territories and yet is regarded as Australia's most under-studied falcon.Debus, S.J.S. & Olsen, J. (2011). Some aspects of the biology of the Black Falcon ''Falco subniger''. Corella 35: 29-36

Description

The information in this section is based on recent descriptions by several authors (notably, Debus & Davies 2012, Debus & Olsen 2011, Morcombe 2002 and Birds in Backyards n.d.).Debus, S.J. S & Davies, J. (2012). Birds of prey of Australia: a field guide (2nd ed). CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, VicMorcombe, M. (2002). Field guide to Australian birds. Steve Parish Publishing, Archerfield, QldBirds in Backyards (n.d.). Black Falcon. Retrieved 19 October 2013 http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/species/Falco-subniger Size (adult, beak to tail): 45 – 56 cm (average 50 cm), tail makes up about half the length. Note: Females are larger than males - this is a form of

sexual dimorphism Sexual dimorphism is the condition where sexes of the same species exhibit different Morphology (biology), morphological characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most dioecy, di ...

. Average weight: 833 g (female) 582 g (male). Wing span: 95 –115 cm. Colouration is uniform dark brown to sooty black; juveniles are generally darker than adults; underwing feathers are two-tone (flight feathers slightly paler); adults may have an evident dark stripe below the eye. Occasionally the birds may have a white chin, spots on underwing

coverts A covert feather or tectrix on a bird is one of a set of feathers, called coverts (or ''tectrices''), which cover other feathers. The coverts help to smooth airflow over the wings and tail. Ear coverts The ear coverts are small feathers behind t ...

or bars on undertail coverts.

Cere The beak, bill, or Rostrum (anatomy), rostrum is an external anatomical structure found mostly in birds, but also in turtles, non-avian dinosaurs and a few mammals. A beak is used for pecking, wikt:grasp#Verb, grasping, and holding (in wikt:probe ...

, eye ring and feet are pale grey (or pale blue-grey); eye is dark brown and beak tip is black. Talons are black. Chick is white down. The falcon's body is streamlined with a relatively long tail and slim build. Wings are long and pointed tapering toward wing tip.

Notes on identification

When attempting to identify a flying raptor Debus & Davies recommend concentrating on the bird's silhouette (including shape of wings and proportions), flight style and vocalisations, rather than on details of colouration. Australian falcons can be differentiated from

hawk Hawks are birds of prey of the family Accipitridae. They are very widely distributed and are found on all continents, except Antarctica. The subfamily Accipitrinae includes goshawks, sparrowhawks, sharp-shinned hawks, and others. This ...

s by their toothed upper

mandible In jawed vertebrates, the mandible (from the Latin ''mandibula'', 'for chewing'), lower jaw, or jawbone is a bone that makes up the lowerand typically more mobilecomponent of the mouth (the upper jaw being known as the maxilla). The jawbone i ...

(with a corresponding notch in their lower mandible) and by their long pointed wings. Brown falcons (''Falco berigora'') are a common and widespread

species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

in Australia, and they are the most likely to be confused with the black falcon (particularly brown falcon juveniles and black morphs). In fact, Debus & Olsen suggest many observations and behaviour of brown falcons have mistakenly been attributed to the black falcon, due to incorrect identification. The two species differ in the relative length of exposed tarsi (the lower, visible half of the bird's leg) compared with thigh feathers, flight style, wing attitude, and bold underwing barring and tail barring (which appear on the brown falcon only).Debus, S.J.S & Zuccon, A.E. (2013). Observations on hunting and breeding behaviour of the Black Falcon (''Falco subniger''). Sunbird 43(1): 12-26Morris, F.T. (1976). Birds of prey of Australia: A field guide. Lansdowne Editions, Melbourne, Vic

Taxonomy

The black falcon belongs to the family

Falconidae The falcons and caracaras are around 65 species of Diurnality, diurnal birds of prey that make up the family Falconidae (representing all extant species in the order (biology), order Falconiformes). The family likely originated in South America d ...

, as do the other three falcon species which are found in Australia, the brown falcon, grey falcon (''Falco hypoleucos'') and

peregrine falcon The peregrine falcon (''Falco peregrinus''), also known simply as the peregrine, is a Cosmopolitan distribution, cosmopolitan bird of prey (raptor) in the family (biology), family Falconidae renowned for its speed. A large, Corvus (genus), cro ...

(''F. peregrinus''). Genetic analysis has revealed that the black falcon may be an early offshoot of the Old World

hierofalcon The hierofalcons are four closely related species of falcon which make up the subgenus ''Hierofalco'': * Lanner falcon, ''Falco biarmicus'' * Laggar falcon, ''Falco jugger'' * Saker falcon, ''Falco cherrug'' * Gyrfalcon, ''Falco rusticolus'' ...

s - such as the

saker falcon The saker falcon (Falco cherrug) is a large falcon species. It breeds from Central Europe eastwards across the Palearctic to Manchuria. It is a partial migrant, which means that some part of the population is migratory, some part is not. In Eur ...

(''F. cherrug'') and

laggar falcon The laggar falcon (''Falco jugger''), also known as the lugger falcon or jugger (from Hindi जग्गर — jaggar, "falcon"), is a mid-sized bird of prey which occurs in the Indian subcontinent from extreme southeastern Iran, southeastern ...

(''F. jugger'').

Population and threat status

The black falcon is listed by the IUCN as least concern. It is generally considered scarce, uncommon and nomadic but has at least one stronghold in inland Queensland. It is listed as Vulnerable in NSW and Victoria.NSW Government Office of Environment and Heritage (2013). Black Falcon - profile. Retrieved 20 October 2013 http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/profile.aspx?id=20269 In 2009

BirdLife International BirdLife International is a global partnership of non-governmental organizations that strives to conserve birds and their habitats. BirdLife International's priorities include preventing extinction of bird species, identifying and safeguarding i ...

estimated the black falcon's population as between 670 and 6700 mature individuals, with a stable population trend.BirdLife International (2013). Species factsheet: ''Falco subniger''. Retrieved 17 October 2013 http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=3616&m=1

Distribution and habitat

The black falcon is widely distributed across mainland Australia, except densely forested areas. The species is only occasionally seen in the southern interior of WA and is sparse in coastal areas of south eastern Australia. BirdLife International also lists occasional, non-breeding vagrants to New Zealand. Total distribution area has been estimated at 5,910,000 km². The black falcon's habitat is usually in the arid and semi arid zones. It is usually found near watercourses or utilizing patches of isolated trees. It hunts over open wooded grasslands,

saltbush Saltbush is a vernacular plant name that most often refers to ''Atriplex'', a genus of about 250 plants distributed worldwide from subtropical to subarctic regions. ''Atriplex'' species are native to Australia, North and South America, and Eurasia. ...

plains, bluebush plains and other low vegetation. In arid areas it will hunt over wetlands or near artificial or temporary water bodies – areas which tend to attract the most abundant birdlife.

Behaviour and ecology

The black falcon is known to both harass and be harassed by other bird species, including raptors and corvids. It may be found resting on power poles during the day but will not sit on wires.

Flight and hunting style

The falcon's flight has been described as variable. Generally it flies with relaxed ‘crow-like’ wingbeats with occasional soaring. It also flies with a stiffer, shorter wingbeat. It glides and soars with slightly drooped or sometimes horizontal wings, carpals forward (wings are stretched out straight when gliding). Tail is normally folded (except when soaring, when it is fanned with notched corners). It often soars for long periods without flapping and catches prey in the air or on the ground. In pursuit of prey it uses powerful, rapid wingbeats. While resting the bird's wing tips are shorter than the tail and legs appear short. The species usually hunts alone but has also been observed hunting cooperatively in pairs and occasionally in larger numbers, when prey is abundant (specifically, when stubble fires yield an abundant prey source. Twelve birds were seen at one such fire near Gundagai, NSW. They have often been observed using contour hunting (over treetops), surprising and taking birds on the wing. They will sometimes tail chase other birds over long distances, and less often engage in a Peregrine-like vertical stoop when hunting. The species preys upon and is sometimes the prey of other raptors.

Diet

The black falcon's diet primarily consists of bird species, from

finch The true finches are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family Fringillidae. Finches generally have stout conical bills adapted for eating seeds and nuts and often have colourful plumage. They occupy a great range of habitats where the ...

cockatoo A cockatoo is any of the 21 species of parrots belonging to the family Cacatuidae, the only family in the superfamily Cacatuoidea. Along with the Psittacoidea ( true parrots) and the Strigopoidea (large New Zealand parrots), they make up t ...

size but they have also been observed feeding on small mammals (i.e.

rabbit Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae (which also includes the hares), which is in the order Lagomorpha (which also includes pikas). They are familiar throughout the world as a small herbivore, a prey animal, a domesticated ...

mice A mouse (: mice) is a small rodent. Characteristically, mice are known to have a pointed snout, small rounded ears, a body-length scaly tail, and a high breeding rate. The best known mouse species is the common house mouse (''Mus musculus' ...

and

rat Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents. Species of rats are found throughout the order Rodentia, but stereotypical rats are found in the genus ''Rattus''. Other rat genera include '' Neotoma'' (pack rats), '' Bandicota'' (bandicoo ...

s), insects and carrion. Avian prey species include: * various pigeons (including crested pigeon ''Ocyphaps lophotes'' and the feral

rock dove The rock dove (''Columba livia''), also sometimes known as "rock pigeon" or "common pigeon", is a member of the bird family Columbidae (doves and pigeons). In common usage, it is often simply referred to as the "pigeon", although the rock dov ...

''Columba livia'') *

Australian pipit The Australian pipit (''Anthus australis'') is a fairly small passerine bird of open country in Australia and New Guinea. It belongs to the pipit genus ''Anthus'' in the family Motacillidae. Description It is a slender bird, 16 to 19 cm l ...

(''Anthus australis'') *

Australian magpie The Australian magpie (''Gymnorhina tibicen'') is a black and white passerine bird native to Australia and southern New Guinea, and introduced to New Zealand, and the Fijian island of Taveuni. Although once considered to be three separate ...

(''Gymnorhina tibicen'') *

Australian ringneck The Australian ringneck (''Barnardius zonarius'') is a parrot native to Australia. Except for extreme tropical and highland areas, the species has adapted to all conditions. Treatments of genus ''Barnardius'' have previously recognised two sp ...

(''Barnardius zonarius'') *

Black-faced Cuckooshrike The black-faced cuckooshrike (''Coracina novaehollandiae'') is a common omnivorous passerine bird native to Australia and southern New Guinea. It has a protected status in Australia, under the National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1974. They are wid ...

(''Coracina novaehollandiae'') * Blue bonnet (''Northiella haematogaster'') *

Budgerigar The budgerigar ( ; ''Melopsittacus undulatus''), also known as the common parakeet, shell parakeet or budgie ( ), is a small, long-tailed, seed-eating parrot native to Australia. Naturally the species is green and yellow with black, scallop ...

(''Melopsittacus undulatus'') *

Common starling The common starling (''Sturnus vulgaris''), also known simply as the starling in Great Britain and Ireland, and as European starling in North America, is a medium-sized passerine bird in the starling family, Sturnidae. It is about long and ha ...

(''Sturnus vulgaris'') * Eastern rosella (''Platycercus eximius'') * Fairy martin (''Petrochelidon ariel'') *

Galah The galah (; ''Eolophus roseicapilla''), less commonly known as the pink and grey cockatoo or rose-breasted cockatoo, is an Australian species of cockatoo and the only member of the genus ''Eolophus''. The galah is adapted to a wide variety of m ...

(''Eolophus roseicapillus'') * Grey Teal (''Anas gracilis'') * Honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) *

Horsfield's bush lark The singing bush lark or Horsfield's bush lark (''Mirafra javanica'') is a species of lark which inhabits grassland throughout most of Australia and much of Southeast Asia. It was described by the American naturalist Thomas Horsfield. Taxonomy T ...

(''Mirafra javanica'') * Little buttonquail (''Turnix velox'') * Little corella (''Cacatua sanguinea'') * Musk lorikeet (''Glossopsitta concinna'') * Stubble quail (''Coturnix pectoralis'') *

Zebra finch The zebra finches are two species of estrildid finch in the genus ''Taeniopygia'' found in Australia and Indonesia. They are seed-eaters that travel in large flocks. Species The species are: Previously, both species were classified as ...

(''Taeniopygia guttata'') Debus & Zuccon also observed the black falcon hunting

turquoise parrot The turquoise parrot (''Neophema pulchella'') is a species of parrot in the genus ''Neophema'' native to Eastern Australia, from southeastern Queensland, through New South Wales and into North-Eastern Victoria (state), Victoria. It was species d ...

(''Neophema pulchella'') and

apostlebird The apostlebird (''Struthidea cinerea''), also known as the grey jumper, lousy jack or happy family, is a quick-moving, gray or black bird about 33 cm (13 in) long. It is a native to Australia where it roams woodlands, eating insects an ...

(''Struthidea cinerea''), but on these occasions the attacks were unsuccessful.

Breeding

Laying time: between May and November (usually July to September). Clutch size: 1 - 5 (usually 3 or 4). Egg size: 42x32 mm. Incubation: approximately 34 days (by female, possibly by male for short periods). Nestling period: 5.5 – 7 weeks. Life span: at least 12 years in the wild, and 20 years in captivity. The black falcon nests in living or dead trees, using the stick nests of

corvid Corvidae is a cosmopolitan family of oscine passerine birds that contains the crows, ravens, rooks, magpies, jackdaws, jays, treepies, choughs, and nutcrackers. In colloquial English, they are known as the crow family or corvids. Curre ...

s or other raptors. It may take over nests occupied by other birds. It appears there may be interspecific competition for nest sites between the black falcon and other raptors and corvids.Debus, S.J.S. & Tsang, L.R. (2011). Notes on Black Falcons ''Falco subniger'' breeding near Tamworth, New South Wales. Australian Field Ornithology 28: 13-26 Nest sites may be a limiting factor for black falcons, specifically where there has large-scale vegetation clearing, such as occurred in the sheep-wheat belt of NSW. During breeding season males perform courtship displays such as horizontal figure eights around the nest. The male bring food to the female during incubation and brooding. During the later nestling period both sexes may forage to feed the young. Post-fledging behaviour and development of young falcons appears to be very similar to that of the peregrine falcon, and includes spending time with siblings and parents, and practicing hunting, territorial and courtship behaviours.

Vocalisations

The most common call is similar to the 'cackle' of the peregrine falcon but is slower and deeper – '. The guttural call is shorter and more rapid when being attacked or when intruders are nearby – '. Some authors suggest the bird screams when attacking prey but this attribution could be a result of misidentifications of brown falcons, with other authors contesting that the birds are generally silent during attack. The male also makes a sharp, rather high-pitched ' or ' during courtship displays, and the female has a whine or wail when begging for food or copulating.

Home range, dispersal

The species’ home range is undetermined, but likely to be greater than 100 km². The species appears to be wide-ranging in the non-breeding season, but is also known to stay in regular non-breeding territories for lengthy periods.

Threats and management

Declining numbers of black falcons is a growing concern, with two states (Victoria and New South Wales) already having listed the species as vulnerable. Several authors have pointed out that population and other ecological data on the species is deficient, and addressing this issue should be a major priority for managers in the future. The primary threats to the species are all

anthropogenic Anthropogenic ("human" + "generating") is an adjective that may refer to: * Anthropogeny, the study of the origins of humanity Anthropogenic may also refer to things that have been generated by humans, as follows: * Human impact on the enviro ...

. These include clearing of habitat, degradation of habitat by over grazing, collision with vehicles and shooting. Clearing of big, old trees and breeding sites in riparian areas is of particular concern. The species also faces competition from corvids and other raptors over nest sites and possibly prey. Disturbance of nest sites and harassment by other birds (including

s) also appears to impact the falcon's breeding success. Recommendations for ongoing management include monitoring of populations and further research into its biology and ecology. The Office of Environment and Heritage (NSW Government) has identified eight priority actions that aim to help recover the species. These include: protecting and monitoring known nest sites; protecting old stick nests that could make suitable breeding sites for the species; protecting and recruiting large old trees; engaging landholders in the management of habitat; expanding habitat (particularly along riparian areas); research into dietary requirements and awareness raising.NSW Government Office of the Environment and Heritage (n.d.). Priority actions by type of threatened species: Black Falcon. Retrieved 24 October 2013 from http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/PasSearchSpecies.aspx?speciesName=Black+Falcon&generalType=Birds Victoria does not appear to have a recovery plan in place for the black falcon.

References

External links

Atlas of Living Australia - ''Falco subniger''
{{Taxonbar, from=Q286194

black falcon The black falcon (''Falco subniger'') is a medium-large falcon that is endemic to Australia. It can be found in all mainland states and territories and yet is regarded as Australia's most under-studied falcon.Debus, S.J.S. & Olsen, J. (2011). Som ...

Endemic birds of Australia Diurnal raptors of Australia