chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...

thermodynamics Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, Work (thermodynamics), work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is governed b ...

state variables A state variable is one of the set of variables that are used to describe the mathematical "state" of a dynamical system. Intuitively, the state of a system describes enough about the system to determine its future behaviour in the absence of a ...

heat transfer Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, ...

state State most commonly refers to: * State (polity), a centralized political organization that regulates law and society within a territory **Sovereign state, a sovereign polity in international law, commonly referred to as a country **Nation state, a ...

chemical reaction A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemistry, chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. When chemical reactions occur, the atoms are rearranged and the reaction is accompanied by an Gibbs free energy, ...

physical change Physical changes are changes affecting the form of a chemical substance, but not its chemical composition. Physical changes are used to separate mixtures into their component compounds, but can not usually be used to separate compounds into c ...

phase transition In physics, chemistry, and other related fields like biology, a phase transition (or phase change) is the physical process of transition between one state of a medium and another. Commonly the term is used to refer to changes among the basic Sta ...

calorimeter A calorimeter is a device used for calorimetry, or the process of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity. Differential scanning calorimeters, isothermal micro calorimeters, titration calorimeters ...

Joseph Black Joseph Black (16 April 1728 – 6 December 1799) was a British physicist and chemist, known for his discoveries of magnesium, latent heat, specific heat, and carbon dioxide. He was Professor of Anatomy and Chemistry at the University of Glasgow ...

heat In thermodynamics, heat is energy in transfer between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings by such mechanisms as thermal conduction, electromagnetic radiation, and friction, which are microscopic in nature, involving sub-atomic, ato ...

temperature Temperature is a physical quantity that quantitatively expresses the attribute of hotness or coldness. Temperature is measurement, measured with a thermometer. It reflects the average kinetic energy of the vibrating and colliding atoms making ...

Indirect calorimetry Indirect calorimetry calculates heat that living organisms produce by measuring either their production of carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste (frequently ammonia in aquatic organisms, or urea in terrestrial ones), or from their consumption of oxy ...

carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalent bond, covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at norma ...

ammonia Ammonia is an inorganic chemical compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the chemical formula, formula . A Binary compounds of hydrogen, stable binary hydride and the simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinctive pu ...

urea Urea, also called carbamide (because it is a diamide of carbonic acid), is an organic compound with chemical formula . This amide has two Amine, amino groups (–) joined by a carbonyl functional group (–C(=O)–). It is thus the simplest am ...

oxygen Oxygen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group (periodic table), group in the periodic table, a highly reactivity (chemistry), reactive nonmetal (chemistry), non ...

Lavoisier Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier ( ; ; 26 August 17438 May 1794),
CNRS (

multiple regression. The

dynamic energy budget The dynamic energy budget (DEB) theory is a formal metabolic theory which provides a single quantitative framework to dynamically describe the aspects of metabolism (energy and mass budgets) of all living organisms at the individual level, based o ...

theory explains why this procedure is correct. Heat generated by living organisms may also be measured by ''direct calorimetry'', in which the entire organism is placed inside the calorimeter for the measurement. A widely used modern instrument is the

differential scanning calorimeter Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a thermoanalytical technique in which the difference in the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a sample and reference is measured as a function of temperature. Both the sample and re ...

, a device which allows thermal data to be obtained on small amounts of material. It involves heating the sample at a controlled rate and recording the heat flow either into or from the specimen.

Classical calorimetric calculation of heat

Cases with differentiable equation of state for a one-component body

Basic classical calculation with respect to volume

Calorimetry requires that a reference material that changes temperature have known definite thermal constitutive properties. The classical rule, recognized by

Clausius Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius (; 2 January 1822 – 24 August 1888) was a German physicist and mathematician and is considered one of the central founding fathers of the science of thermodynamics. By his restatement of Nicolas Léonard Sadi Ca ...

and

Kelvin The kelvin (symbol: K) is the base unit for temperature in the International System of Units (SI). The Kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale that starts at the lowest possible temperature (absolute zero), taken to be 0 K. By de ...

, is that the pressure exerted by the calorimetric material is fully and rapidly determined solely by its temperature and volume; this rule is for changes that do not involve phase change, such as melting of ice. There are many materials that do not comply with this rule, and for them, the present formula of classical calorimetry does not provide an adequate account. Here the classical rule is assumed to hold for the calorimetric material being used, and the propositions are mathematically written: The thermal response of the calorimetric material is fully described by its pressure

p\

as the value of its constitutive function

p(V,T)\

of just the volume

V\

and the temperature

T\

. All increments are here required to be very small. This calculation refers to a domain of volume and temperature of the body in which no phase change occurs, and there is only one phase present. An important assumption here is continuity of property relations. A different analysis is needed for phase change When a small increment of heat is gained by a calorimetric body, with small increments,

\delta V\

of its volume, and

\delta T\

of its temperature, the increment of heat,

\delta Q\

, gained by the body of calorimetric material, is given by :

\delta Q\ =C^_T(V,T)\, \delta V\,+\,C^_V(V,T)\,\delta T

where :

C^_T(V,T)\

denotes the latent heat with respect to volume, of the calorimetric material at constant controlled temperature

T

. The surroundings' pressure on the material is instrumentally adjusted to impose a chosen volume change, with initial volume

V\

. To determine this latent heat, the volume change is effectively the independently instrumentally varied quantity. This latent heat is not one of the widely used ones, but is of theoretical or conceptual interest. :

C^_V(V,T)\

denotes the heat capacity, of the calorimetric material at fixed constant volume

V\

, while the pressure of the material is allowed to vary freely, with initial temperature

T\

. The temperature is forced to change by exposure to a suitable heat bath. It is customary to write

C^_V(V,T)\

simply as

C_V(V,T)\

, or even more briefly as

C_V\

. This latent heat is one of the two widely used ones. The latent heat with respect to volume is the heat required for unit increment in volume at constant temperature. It can be said to be 'measured along an isotherm', and the pressure the material exerts is allowed to vary freely, according to its constitutive law

p=p(V,T)\

. For a given material, it can have a positive or negative sign or exceptionally it can be zero, and this can depend on the temperature, as it does for water about 4 C. The concept of latent heat with respect to volume was perhaps first recognized by

Joseph Black Joseph Black (16 April 1728 – 6 December 1799) was a British physicist and chemist, known for his discoveries of magnesium, latent heat, specific heat, and carbon dioxide. He was Professor of Anatomy and Chemistry at the University of Glasgow ...

in 1762. The term 'latent heat of expansion' is also used. The latent heat with respect to volume can also be called the 'latent energy with respect to volume'. For all of these usages of 'latent heat', a more systematic terminology uses 'latent heat capacity'. The heat capacity at constant volume is the heat required for unit increment in temperature at constant volume. It can be said to be 'measured along an isochor', and again, the pressure the material exerts is allowed to vary freely. It always has a positive sign. This means that for an increase in the temperature of a body without change of its volume, heat must be supplied to it. This is consistent with common experience. Quantities like

\delta Q\

are sometimes called 'curve differentials', because they are measured along curves in the

(V,T)\

surface.

Classical theory for constant-volume (isochoric) calorimetry

Constant-volume calorimetry is calorimetry performed at a constant

volume Volume is a measure of regions in three-dimensional space. It is often quantified numerically using SI derived units (such as the cubic metre and litre) or by various imperial or US customary units (such as the gallon, quart, cubic inch) ...

. This involves the use of a

constant-volume calorimeter A calorimeter is a device used for calorimetry, or the process of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity. Differential scanning calorimeters, isothermal micro calorimeters, titration calorimeters ...

. Heat is still measured by the above-stated principle of calorimetry. This means that in a suitably constructed calorimeter, called a bomb calorimeter, the increment of volume

\delta V\

can be made to vanish,

\delta V=0\

. For constant-volume calorimetry: :

\delta Q = C_V \delta T\

where :

\delta T\

denotes the increment in

temperature Temperature is a physical quantity that quantitatively expresses the attribute of hotness or coldness. Temperature is measurement, measured with a thermometer. It reflects the average kinetic energy of the vibrating and colliding atoms making ...

and :

C_V\

denotes the

heat capacity Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of heat to be supplied to an object to produce a unit change in its temperature. The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J/K). Heat capacity is a ...

at constant volume.

Classical heat calculation with respect to pressure

From the above rule of calculation of heat with respect to volume, there follows one with respect to pressure. In a process of small increments,

\delta p\

of its pressure, and

\delta T\

of its temperature, the increment of heat,

\delta Q\

, gained by the body of calorimetric material, is given by :

\delta Q\ =C^_T(p,T)\, \delta p\,+\,C^_p(p,T)\,\delta T

where :

C^_T(p,T)\

denotes the latent heat with respect to pressure, of the calorimetric material at constant temperature, while the volume and pressure of the body are allowed to vary freely, at pressure

p\

and temperature

T\

; :

C^_p(p,T)\

denotes the heat capacity, of the calorimetric material at constant pressure, while the temperature and volume of the body are allowed to vary freely, at pressure

p\

and temperature

T\

. It is customary to write

C^_p(p,T)\

simply as

C_p(p,T)\

, or even more briefly as

C_p\

. The new quantities here are related to the previous ones: :

C^_T(p,T)=\frac

:

C^_p(p,T)=C^_V(V,T)-C^_T(V,T) \frac

where :

\left.\frac\_

denotes the

partial derivative In mathematics, a partial derivative of a function of several variables is its derivative with respect to one of those variables, with the others held constant (as opposed to the total derivative, in which all variables are allowed to vary). P ...

of

p(V,T)\

with respect to

V\

evaluated for

(V,T)\

and :

\left.\frac\_

denotes the partial derivative of

p(V,T)\

with respect to

T\

evaluated for

(V,T)\

. The latent heats

C^_T(V,T)\

and

C^_T(p,T)\

are always of opposite sign. It is common to refer to the ratio of specific heats as :

\gamma(V,T)=\frac

often just written as

\gamma=\frac

.

Calorimetry through phase change, equation of state shows one jump discontinuity

An early calorimeter was that used by

Laplace Pierre-Simon, Marquis de Laplace (; ; 23 March 1749 – 5 March 1827) was a French polymath, a scholar whose work has been instrumental in the fields of physics, astronomy, mathematics, engineering, statistics, and philosophy. He summariz ...

and

Lavoisier Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier ( ; ; 26 August 17438 May 1794),
CNRS (

phase change Phase change may refer to: * Phase transition In physics, chemistry, and other related fields like biology, a phase transition (or phase change) is the physical process of transition between one state of a medium and another. Commonly the term ...

.

Cumulation of heating

For a time-dependent process of heating of the calorimetric material, defined by a continuous joint progression

P(t_1,t_2)\

of

V(t)\

and

T(t)\

, starting at time

t_1\

and ending at time

t_2\

, there can be calculated an accumulated quantity of heat delivered,

\Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\,

. This calculation is done by mathematical integration along the progression with respect to time. This is because increments of heat are 'additive'; but this does not mean that heat is a conservative quantity. The idea that heat was a conservative quantity was invented by

Lavoisier Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier ( ; ; 26 August 17438 May 1794),
CNRS (

caloric theory The caloric theory is an obsolete scientific theory that heat consists of a self-repellent fluid called caloric that flows from hotter bodies to colder bodies. Caloric was also thought of as a weightless gas that could pass in and out of pores ...

'; by the middle of the nineteenth century it was recognized as mistaken. Written with the symbol

\Delta\

, the quantity

\Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\,

is not at all restricted to be an increment with very small values; this is in contrast with

\delta Q\

. One can write :

\Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\

::

=\int_ \dot Q(t)dt

::

=\int_ C^_T(V,T)\, \dot V(t)\, dt\,+\,\int_C^_V(V,T)\,\dot T(t)\,dt

. This expression uses quantities such as

\dot Q(t)\

which are defined in the section below headed 'Mathematical aspects of the above rules'.

Mathematical aspects of the above rules

The use of 'very small' quantities such as

\delta Q\

is related to the physical requirement for the quantity

p(V,T)\

to be 'rapidly determined' by

V\

and

T\

; such 'rapid determination' refers to a physical process. These 'very small' quantities are used in the

Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (or Leibnitz; – 14 November 1716) was a German polymath active as a mathematician, philosopher, scientist and diplomat who is credited, alongside Sir Isaac Newton, with the creation of calculus in addition to many ...

approach to the

infinitesimal calculus Calculus is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. Originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the calculus of ...

. The

Newton Newton most commonly refers to: * Isaac Newton (1642–1726/1727), English scientist * Newton (unit), SI unit of force named after Isaac Newton Newton may also refer to: People * Newton (surname), including a list of people with the surname * ...

approach uses instead ' fluxions' such as

\dot V(t) = \left.\frac\_t

, which makes it more obvious that

p(V,T)\

must be 'rapidly determined'. In terms of fluxions, the above first rule of calculation can be written :

\dot Q(t)\ =C^_T(V,T)\, \dot V(t)\,+\,C^_V(V,T)\,\dot T(t)

where :

t\

denotes the time :

\dot Q(t)\

denotes the time rate of heating of the calorimetric material at time

t\

:

\dot V(t)\

denotes the time rate of change of volume of the calorimetric material at time

t\

:

\dot T(t)\

denotes the time rate of change of temperature of the calorimetric material. The increment

\delta Q\

and the fluxion

\dot Q(t)\

are obtained for a particular time

t\

that determines the values of the quantities on the righthand sides of the above rules. But this is not a reason to expect that there should exist a

mathematical function In mathematics, a function from a set (mathematics), set to a set assigns to each element of exactly one element of .; the words ''map'', ''mapping'', ''transformation'', ''correspondence'', and ''operator'' are sometimes used synonymously. ...

Q(V,T)\

. For this reason, the increment

\delta Q\

is said to be an 'imperfect differential' or an '

inexact differential An inexact differential or imperfect differential is a differential whose integral is path dependent. It is most often used in thermodynamics to express changes in path dependent quantities such as heat and work, but is defined more generally wit ...

'. Some books indicate this by writing

q\

instead of

\delta Q\

. Also, the notation ''đQ'' is used in some books. Carelessness about this can lead to error.Planck, M. (1923/1926), page 57. The quantity

\Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\

is properly said to be a

functional Functional may refer to: * Movements in architecture: ** Functionalism (architecture) ** Form follows function * Functional group, combination of atoms within molecules * Medical conditions without currently visible organic basis: ** Functional s ...

of the continuous joint progression

P(t_1,t_2)\

of

V(t)\

and

T(t)\

, but, in the mathematical definition of a

function Function or functionality may refer to: Computing * Function key, a type of key on computer keyboards * Function model, a structured representation of processes in a system * Function object or functor or functionoid, a concept of object-orie ...

,

\Delta Q(P(t_1,t_2))\

is not a function of

(V,T)\

. Although the fluxion

\dot Q(t)\

is defined here as a function of time

t\

, the symbols

Q\

and

Q(V,T)\

respectively standing alone are not defined here.

Physical scope of the above rules of calorimetry

The above rules refer only to suitable calorimetric materials. The terms 'rapidly' and 'very small' call for empirical physical checking of the domain of validity of the above rules. The above rules for the calculation of heat belong to pure calorimetry. They make no reference to

thermodynamics Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, Work (thermodynamics), work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is governed b ...

, and were mostly understood before the advent of thermodynamics. They are the basis of the 'thermo' contribution to thermodynamics. The 'dynamics' contribution is based on the idea of

work Work may refer to: * Work (human activity), intentional activity people perform to support themselves, others, or the community ** Manual labour, physical work done by humans ** House work, housework, or homemaking ** Working animal, an ani ...

, which is not used in the above rules of calculation.

Experimentally conveniently measured coefficients

Empirically, it is convenient to measure properties of calorimetric materials under experimentally controlled conditions.

Pressure increase at constant volume

For measurements at experimentally controlled volume, one can use the assumption, stated above, that the pressure of the body of calorimetric material is can be expressed as a function of its volume and temperature. For measurement at constant experimentally controlled volume, the isochoric coefficient of pressure rise with temperature, is defined by :

\alpha _V(V,T)\ = \frac

Expansion at constant pressure

For measurements at experimentally controlled pressure, it is assumed that the volume

V\

of the body of calorimetric material can be expressed as a function

V(T,p)\

of its temperature

T\

and pressure

p\

. This assumption is related to, but is not the same as, the above used assumption that the pressure of the body of calorimetric material is known as a function of its volume and temperature; anomalous behaviour of materials can affect this relation. The quantity that is conveniently measured at constant experimentally controlled pressure, the isobar volume expansion coefficient, is defined by :

\beta _p(T,p)\ = \frac

Compressibility at constant temperature

For measurements at experimentally controlled temperature, it is again assumed that the volume

V\

of the body of calorimetric material can be expressed as a function

V(T,p)\

of its temperature

T\

and pressure

p\

, with the same provisos as mentioned just above. The quantity that is conveniently measured at constant experimentally controlled temperature, the isothermal compressibility, is defined by :

\kappa _T(T,p)\ = -\frac

Relation between classical calorimetric quantities

Assuming that the rule

p=p(V,T)\

is known, one can derive the function of

\frac\

that is used above in the classical heat calculation with respect to pressure. This function can be found experimentally from the coefficients

\beta _p(T,p)\

and

\kappa _T(T,p)\

through the mathematically deducible relation :

\frac=\frac

.

Connection between calorimetry and thermodynamics

Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, Work (thermodynamics), work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is governed b ...

developed gradually over the first half of the nineteenth century, building on the above theory of calorimetry which had been worked out before it, and on other discoveries. According to Gislason and Craig (2005): "Most thermodynamic data come from calorimetry..." According to Kondepudi (2008): "Calorimetry is widely used in present day laboratories." In terms of thermodynamics, the

internal energy The internal energy of a thermodynamic system is the energy of the system as a state function, measured as the quantity of energy necessary to bring the system from its standard internal state to its present internal state of interest, accoun ...

U\

of the calorimetric material can be considered as the value of a function

U(V,T)\

of

(V,T)\

, with partial derivatives

\frac\

and

\frac\

. Then it can be shown that one can write a thermodynamic version of the above calorimetric rules: :

, \delta V\,+\,\left.\frac\_\,\delta T

with :

C^_T(V,T)=p(V,T)\,+\,\left.\frac\_\

and :

C^_V(V,T)=\left.\frac\_\

. Again, further in terms of thermodynamics, the

internal energy The internal energy of a thermodynamic system is the energy of the system as a state function, measured as the quantity of energy necessary to bring the system from its standard internal state to its present internal state of interest, accoun ...

U\

of the calorimetric material can sometimes, depending on the calorimetric material, be considered as the value of a function

U(p,T)\

of

(p,T)\

, with partial derivatives

\frac\

and

\frac\

, and with

V\

being expressible as the value of a function

V(p,T)\

of

(p,T)\

, with partial derivatives

\frac\

and

\frac\

. Then, according to Adkins (1975), it can be shown that one can write a further thermodynamic version of the above calorimetric rules: :

\delta Q\ =\left_\,+\,p \left.\frac\right , _\right delta p\,+\,\left_\,+\,p \left.\frac\right , _\right delta T

with :

C^_T(p,T)=\left.\frac\_\,+\,p\left.\frac\_\

and :

C^_p(p,T)=\left.\frac\_\,+\,p\left.\frac\_\

. Beyond the calorimetric fact noted above that the latent heats

C^_T(V,T)\

and

C^_T(p,T)\

are always of opposite sign, it may be shown, using the thermodynamic concept of work, that also :

C^_T(V,T)\,\left.\frac\_ \geq 0\,.

Special interest of thermodynamics in calorimetry: the isothermal segments of a Carnot cycle

Calorimetry has a special benefit for thermodynamics. It tells about the heat absorbed or emitted in the isothermal segment of a

Carnot cycle A Carnot cycle is an ideal thermodynamic cycle proposed by French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s. By Carnot's theorem (thermodynamics), Carnot's theorem, it provides ...

. A Carnot cycle is a special kind of cyclic process affecting a body composed of material suitable for use in a heat engine. Such a material is of the kind considered in calorimetry, as noted above, that exerts a pressure that is very rapidly determined just by temperature and volume. Such a body is said to change reversibly. A Carnot cycle consists of four successive stages or segments: (1) a change in volume from a volume

V_a\

to a volume

V_b\

at constant temperature

T^+\

so as to incur a flow of heat into the body (known as an isothermal change) (2) a change in volume from

V_b\

to a volume

V_c\

at a variable temperature just such as to incur no flow of heat (known as an adiabatic change) (3) another isothermal change in volume from

V_c\

to a volume

V_d\

at constant temperature

T^-\

such as to incur a flow or heat out of the body and just such as to precisely prepare for the following change (4) another adiabatic change of volume from

V_d\

back to

V_a\

just such as to return the body to its starting temperature

T^+\

. In isothermal segment (1), the heat that flows into the body is given by :

\Delta Q(V_a,V_b;T^+)\,=\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\int_^ C^_T(V,T^+)\, dV\

and in isothermal segment (3) the heat that flows out of the body is given by :

-\Delta Q(V_c,V_d;T^-)\,=\,-\int_^ C^_T(V,T^-)\, dV\

. Because the segments (2) and (4) are adiabats, no heat flows into or out of the body during them, and consequently the net heat supplied to the body during the cycle is given by :

\Delta Q(V_a,V_b;T^+;V_c,V_d;T^-)\,=\,\Delta Q(V_a,V_b;T^+)\,+\,\Delta Q(V_c,V_d;T^-)\,=\,\int_^ C^_T(V,T^+)\, dV\,+\,\int_^ C^_T(V,T^-)\, dV\

. This quantity is used by thermodynamics and is related in a special way to the net

work Work may refer to: * Work (human activity), intentional activity people perform to support themselves, others, or the community ** Manual labour, physical work done by humans ** House work, housework, or homemaking ** Working animal, an ani ...

done by the body during the Carnot cycle. The net change of the body's internal energy during the Carnot cycle,

\Delta U(V_a,V_b;T^+;V_c,V_d;T^-)\

, is equal to zero, because the material of the working body has the special properties noted above.

Special interest of calorimetry in thermodynamics: relations between classical calorimetric quantities

Relation of latent heat with respect to volume, and the equation of state

The quantity

C^_T(V,T)\

, the latent heat with respect to volume, belongs to classical calorimetry. It accounts for the occurrence of energy transfer by work in a process in which heat is also transferred; the quantity, however, was considered before the relation between heat and work transfers was clarified by the invention of thermodynamics. In the light of thermodynamics, the classical calorimetric quantity is revealed as being tightly linked to the calorimetric material's equation of state

p=p(V,T)\

. Provided that the temperature

T\,

is measured in the thermodynamic absolute scale, the relation is expressed in the formula :

C^_T(V,T)=T \left.\frac\_\

.

Difference of specific heats

Advanced thermodynamics provides the relation :

, \left.\frac\_

. From this, further mathematical and thermodynamic reasoning leads to another relation between classical calorimetric quantities. The difference of specific heats is given by :

C_p(p,T)-C_V(V,T)=\frac

.

Practical constant-volume calorimetry (bomb calorimetry) for thermodynamic studies

Constant-volume calorimetry is calorimetry performed at a constant

volume Volume is a measure of regions in three-dimensional space. It is often quantified numerically using SI derived units (such as the cubic metre and litre) or by various imperial or US customary units (such as the gallon, quart, cubic inch) ...

. This involves the use of a

constant-volume calorimeter A calorimeter is a device used for calorimetry, or the process of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity. Differential scanning calorimeters, isothermal micro calorimeters, titration calorimeters ...

. No work is performed in constant-volume calorimetry, so the heat measured equals the change in internal energy of the system. The heat capacity at constant volume is assumed to be independent of temperature. Heat is measured by the principle of calorimetry. :

q = C_V \Delta T = \Delta U \,,

where :Δ''U'' is change in

internal energy The internal energy of a thermodynamic system is the energy of the system as a state function, measured as the quantity of energy necessary to bring the system from its standard internal state to its present internal state of interest, accoun ...

, :Δ''T'' is change in

temperature Temperature is a physical quantity that quantitatively expresses the attribute of hotness or coldness. Temperature is measurement, measured with a thermometer. It reflects the average kinetic energy of the vibrating and colliding atoms making ...

and :''C_V'' is the

heat capacity Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of heat to be supplied to an object to produce a unit change in its temperature. The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J/K). Heat capacity is a ...

at constant volume. In ''constant-volume calorimetry'' the

pressure Pressure (symbol: ''p'' or ''P'') is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure (also spelled ''gage'' pressure)The preferred spelling varies by country and eve ...

is not held constant. If there is a pressure difference between initial and final states, the heat measured needs adjustment to provide the ''

enthalpy Enthalpy () is the sum of a thermodynamic system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume. It is a state function in thermodynamics used in many measurements in chemical, biological, and physical systems at a constant extern ...

change''. One then has :

\Delta H = \Delta U + \Delta (PV) = \Delta U + V \Delta P \,,

where :Δ''H'' is change in

enthalpy Enthalpy () is the sum of a thermodynamic system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume. It is a state function in thermodynamics used in many measurements in chemical, biological, and physical systems at a constant extern ...

and :''V'' is the unchanging volume of the sample chamber.

References

Books

* * * * * *. * * * * * * * *

External links

* {{Authority control Heat transfer

Classical calorimetric calculation of heat

Cases with differentiable equation of state for a one-component body

Basic classical calculation with respect to volume

Classical theory for constant-volume (isochoric) calorimetry

Classical heat calculation with respect to pressure

Calorimetry through phase change, equation of state shows one jump discontinuity

Cumulation of heating

Mathematical aspects of the above rules

Physical scope of the above rules of calorimetry

Experimentally conveniently measured coefficients

Pressure increase at constant volume

Expansion at constant pressure

Compressibility at constant temperature

Relation between classical calorimetric quantities

Connection between calorimetry and thermodynamics

Special interest of thermodynamics in calorimetry: the isothermal segments of a Carnot cycle

Special interest of calorimetry in thermodynamics: relations between classical calorimetric quantities

Relation of latent heat with respect to volume, and the equation of state

Difference of specific heats

Practical constant-volume calorimetry (bomb calorimetry) for thermodynamic studies

See also

References

Books

External links