Wén Dān ( zh, 文單; ), proposed Bhavapura, was a group of ancient Mon people, Mon political entities that existed around the 6th–10th centuries CE in the interior of mainland Southeast Asia scattered around the central Mekong, Mekong Valley in the present-day northeast Thailand. It was mentioned in the Chinese annals of the Tang dynasty, Tang period (618-907 AD) as a dependency on the trans-Mekong trade route from the ancient city of Chiaochih (jiāo zhǐ 交趾; Giao chỉ; near the present-day Vinh of Vietnam) to India. It sent representatives to China in 717, 750, 753, 771, 779, and 799. Some scholars identify Wen Dan with Bhavapura and believe it was the origin of the united Chenla. However, this theory remains disputed, as some argue that Chenla probably formed in the southern Tonlé Sap Basin, rather than in Northeast Thailand or Southern Laos. Initially, Wen Dan was believed to be Vientiane, but according to the location given in the Chinese annals as well as archaeological evidence, it is supposed to be in the Chi River basin, centered in Kantharawichai district, Kantharawichai, with Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang as outer center and Champasri as the vassal. It was alleged that these three communities had a close relationship through Dvaravati Buddhism, which was subsequently supplanted by the Angkorian beliefs in the 10th century. Several historical evidences supports the connection between Wen Dan and Si Thep Historical Park, Si Thep in central Thailand. Its capital, Kantharawichai district, Kantharawichai, proposed by Japanese Tatsuo Hoshino corresponds with the location provided in the Chinese text of Tang Huiyao says Wen Dan was a state located 6 days' travel by land northwest of Dvaravati-influenced Keoi Lau Mìwikisource:zh:唐会要/卷100#拘蒌蜜国, 唐会要 [''Tang Huiyao''] (in Chinese) of the Kuy people. According to the Dvaravati Buddhist boundary stones (Bai sema) dated the 8th century, found on Phnom Kulen, Mt. Kulen, Hiram W. Woodward, Woodward (2003) proposes that Wen Dan once controlled the Angkor region before Jayavarman II proclaimed the independence of the Kambujadesa from Shailendra dynasty, Java in 802. Jayavarman II probably either defeated Wen Dan and then moved the capital from Indrapura (Khmer), Indrapura to Yaśodharapura to the north, or formed ally with the communities in Mun River, Mun and Chi River, Chi watersheds to against Si Thep Historical Park, Si Thep to the west.

History

Prehistory

Dvaravati–Chenla period: 580 – 944

Federated Chenla: 580 – 681

It was proposed by Pierre Dupont that Chenla was originated in the Mun River, Mun Valley, and was ruled by the Bhavavarman I, who, together with his successor Mahendravarman (Chenla), Mahendravarman I, expanded territory southward to the Champasak province, Bassac-Pakse, Pakse region, which considered the original land of the Khmer people that later known as Vat Phou, Sreshthapura. The expansion campaign continued deep south along the Mekong Basin, and they successfully established the new capital at Isanapura, Sambhupura in 618. The reign of their successor, Isanavarman I, was considered the golden period of the kingdom, as he was able to subdue the maritime trade polity of Funan, which previously was their suzerainty, as well as vassalizing several polities to the northwest in the Tonlé Sap Basin, extending the influence to the Menam Valley in modern central Thailand, where the Dvaravati culture dominant. Following the reign of Isanavarman I, Chenla declined and eventually broke apart in the 8th century. However, this presupposition has recently been questioned as Khmer inscriptions that date pre-7th century are found to be concentrated in present-day central to southern Cambodia and the Mekong delta in southern Vietnam. In contrast, northeastern Thailand has no Khmer inscription dated before the 8th century, as well as the adjacent area of southern Laos and northwest Cambodia, previously stated to be the original homeland of Khmer, were instead dominated by Cham language, Cham inscriptions. Thus, Bhavavarman I and Mahendravarman I probably originated in the southern plain of the Tonlé Sap and later expanded their influence northward to Bassac-Pakse and the Chi River, Chi-Mun River, Mun Valley. The origin of Bhavavarman I remains disputed; he was potentially a prince of Si Thep Historical Park, Si Thep's king, Prathivindravarman, as cited in the K.978 Ban Wang Pai Inscription. This assumption is corroborated by numerous archaeological findings in the proposed regions of Wen Dan, encompassing Kantharawichai district, Kantharawichai, Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang, and Champasri, showing a substantial connection to Si Thep Historical Park, Si Thep in central Thailand.

Independent polity: 681 – 944

Due to the weak rule at Isanapura, Sambhupura, the upper Chenla or ''Wen Dan'' broke away in 707, and this new kingdom was named "Bhavapura" in honor of its first great king, Bhavavarman I, as proposed by Pierre Dupont. Meanwhile, George Cœdès gave the date of the separation at the end of Jayavarman I' reign, that is 681. Tatsuo Hoshino suggests that Kantharawichai district, Kantharawichai was probably the chief city of Wen Dan, while some say it centered at either Thakhek or Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang. The remaining lower Chenla – Isanapura, Sambhupura, Vyādhapura, and Bālādityapura – later dissolved in the late 8th century. Following the secession, Wen Dan was probably ruled by Bhavavarman I's offspring. It was believed that Sri Jayasimhavarmman, cited in the Mon language, Monic K.404 Stèle de Phu Khiao Kao found in Chaiyaphum province, dated 7th–8th century, was the first Wen Dan king. The sole historical documentations concerning Wen Dan during this period are the Chinese records from the Tang Dynasty, which provide more insight into Wen Dan's relations with China than its dealings with the lower Chenla. The travel route to China clearly through the Annamite Range, Annamite mountain passes to Nghean, and thereafter to Jiaozhou (region), Jiaozhou. Wen Dan first sent tribute to China in 717. Subsequently, in 722, Wen Dan assisted a native Nghean lord – probably a Tai people, Tai or a Hmong people, Hmong – in the wars against the Chinese governor at Jiaozhou (region), Jiaozhou, which they won, conquering Jiaozhou, and the native lord enthroned himself as ''Hei-ti'' (). This royal connection allowed the Tai people, Tai–Lao people, Lao people to start migrating to the Khorat Plateau during this time. The tribute to China was probably sent again in 750. Three years later, Wen Dan's crown prince, together with 26 relatives, visited the Chinese court, and the prince was given the title "''Protector Firm and Persevering''" for Wen Dan's assistance in helping to guard its southeastern frontier. Following the Tang dynasty's defeat in the trade routes conflicts by King Kolofong of Nanzhao in 753 and 755, Wen Dan's king dispatched his crown prince and generals to support China, but the Chinese armies were routed. Due to several unsuccessful wars against Nanzhao, to strengthen the southern region, Jiaozhou (region), Jiaozhou was placed under a military commandant in 756. Ten years later, in 766, a Tang army of 70,000, led by General Li Mi from Sichuan, invaded Nanzhao. Vietnamese Governor "''He Lu Guang''" joined Wen Dan in attacking the south Nanzhao, but Kolofeng, the Nanzhao king, captured General Li and won. Wen Dan's army returned home. The following year, the citadel of ''Lo-than'' near the modern Hanoi was constructed after the region was raided by Melayu, the viceroy of Wen Dan, with his wife, then came to court to pay 11 trained elephants. In 771, Wen Dan's prince went to China and was titled "Special Highest Local Commander," equal to the King of Nanzhao, and was even higher than the Chinese governors in Vietnam and Guangzhou. Another embassy is said to have been sent in 779, and the last one in 799. A Chinese merchant named ''Chia Tan'' paid a visit to the Wen Dan capital in the late 8th century. His itinerary for the journey also cursorily provides the location of Wen Dan, whose capital is potentially in the Chi River Basin in Thailand or near Thakhek in the present-day Laos. No record mentions Wen Dan after the last tribute sent to China in 799. If Wen Dan was Bhavapura as proposed by some scholars, it was probably under the ancestors of Rajendravarman II, who, through his dynasty, later brought the kingdom under Yaśodharapura during his reign at Angkor from 944 to 968. Hiram W. Woodward proposed that after Kambujadesa' king Jayavarman II moved the capital to the north of the Tonlé Sap in the late 9th century, he probably formed alliances with polities in the Chi River, Chi–Mun River, Mun basin, which includes Wen Dan, to counterpoise Si Thep Historical Park, Si Thep in the Pasak River, Pasak basin to the west.

Angkorian period: 944 – 1300s

Despite having disappeared from the historical record since the early 9th century, Wen Dan or Bhavapura likely remained in its dependent status until Rajendravarman II, who was also of the Bhavapura house, was enthroned as the Angkorian king in 944. Through his lineage, Bhavapura was brought under Yaśodharapura during his reign, expanding the Angkor territory to Laos and the eastern Menam Valley in central Thailand, as far north as southern China – possibly through an alliance formation with local chiefdoms to defend against Nanzhao in the 8th century – and also won over Champa.Maspero, G., 2002, The Champa Kingdom, Bangkok: White Lotus Co., Ltd., Rajendravarman II was followed by his ten-year-old son Jayavarman V,Higham, C., 2014, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd., during whose rule royal politics were dominated by aristocratic families, which led some vassals to break away. The kingdom then entered a nine-year civil war, and the throne was won by an usurper Suryavarman I in 1006. The proposed center of Wen Dan at Kantharawichai district, Kantharawichai, or Gandharath in the local chronicle, was abandoned following the fall of the Dvaravati civilization in the 10th century. Its southern vassal, Champasri, was later deserted in the 13th century; the outer center at Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang, founded in 621, was maintained until its decline in importance in the 17th century. Wen Dan was probably replaced by a semi-legendary Lao people, Laotian kingdom of Kuruntha, centered at Saket Nakhon (present-day Roi Et), as local legend claims its territory covered two former Wen Dan polities, Champasri, Mueang Champasri to the west and Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang to the north.

Phra That Phanom Chronicle

Following the decline of the Dvaravati culture, Angkorian influence began expanding to the Chi basin and several Lao people, Laotian semi-legendary polities emerged, such as Kuruntha, , Nong Han Noi (), and , as mentioned in the Memory of the World Programme, Memory of the World of the , which was compiled by Laotian king around 1638–1641. Although the text provided gives the date about the 1st century CE; however, various details in the text, including references to Inthapat Nakhon (), which has been identified with Yaśodharapura or Angkor, suggest that the events in the chronicle likely transpired post-10th century, coinciding with the era when the Lao people began to migrant to the Mun River, Mun-Chi River, Chi basins.Pittayaporn, Pittayawat (2014). Layers of Chinese Loanwords in Proto-Southwestern Tai as Evidence for the Dating of the Spread of Southwestern Tai
. ''MANUSYA: Journal of Humanities'', Special Issue No 20: 47–64. The first section of the chronicle depicts the dynastic relationships between the ancient polities in modern central Vietnam and the central and lower Mekong Valleys of present-day Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia during the construction of Wat Phra That Phanom, Phra That Phanom, dated before the 1100s. Meanwhile, the latter part tells the story of the formation of the Kuruntha Kingdom, in which two allied kings, Yothika () of Kuruntha Nakhon and Sri Amornnee () of Saket Nakhon, give their thrones to Suriyawongsa Sitthidet (), who was Sri Amornnee's son. Both former kings went on to rule another kingdom. This throne merger enabled the Kuruntha Kingdom, centered at present-day Roi Et, to reach its peak, with several surrounding city-states becoming under Suriyawongsa Sitthidet's authority. Its territory was said to be reached Mueang Bua () in Kaset Wisai District to the south, Mueang Fa Daet Song Yang to the north, Champasri, Mueang Champasri to the west, and Mueang Prai () in Selaphum District to the east.

Lan Xang period: 1300s – 1800s

The Kuruntha polities probably lost prominence following the decline of Angkor, and their chief center eventually was abandoned. During the Lan Xang Champasak Kingdom, Champasak period, former Kuruntha Nakhon was known as a small village named ''Ban Kum Hang'' () governed by ) (; later known as Suwannaphum). After the conflict over the succession at Mueang Thong Sri Phum in 1765, the polity pledged allegiance to Siam, which acted as the negotiator. In 1775, the two opponents divided Mueang Thong Sri Phum into two, with the northern territory becoming another principality named Mueang Roi Et (formerly ''Ban Kum Hang''). Former Mueang Thong Sri Phum noble ''Tont'' () was enthroned as the first Roi Et's ruler. Meanwhile, the proposed center of Wen Dan at Kantharawichai district, Kantharawichai or Gandharath, which was abandoned around the 10th century, was repopulated by the Lao people around the 17th century, as evidenced by the oldest Lan Xang-style temple, which was built in 1702. The village was named ''Ban Kan Thang'' (), then renamed "Kantharawichai" by the Siamese king Rama V in 1874 and was governed from Kalasin.

List of rulers

Notes

References

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