Berberis

''Berberis'' (), commonly known as barberry, is a large genus of deciduous and evergreen shrubs from tall, found throughout temperate and subtropical regions of the world (apart from Australia). Species diversity is greatest in South America and Asia; Europe, Africa and North America have native species as well. The best-known ''Berberis'' species is the European barberry, '' Berberis vulgaris'', which is common in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and central Asia, and has been widely introduced in North America. Many of the species have spines on the shoots and all along the margins of the leaves.

Description

The genus ''Berberis'' has dimorphic shoots: long shoots which form the structure of the plant, and short shoots only long. The leaves on long shoots are non-photosynthetic, developed into one to three or more spines long. The bud in the axil of each thorn-leaf then develops a short shoot with several normal, photosynthetic leaves. These leaves are long, simple, and either entire, or with spiny margins. Only on young seedlings do leaves develop on the long shoots, with the adult foliage style developing after the young plant is 1–2 years old.

Many deciduous species, such as '' Berberis thunbergii and B. vulgaris'', are noted for their attractive pink or red autumn colour. In some evergreen species from China, such as '' B. candidula and B. verruculosa'', the undersides of the leaves are brilliant white, a feature valued horticulturally. Some horticultural variants of ''B. thunbergii'' have dark red to violet foliage. Such as ''B. thunbergii'' f. ''atropurpurea'' 'Admiration', and ''B. thunbergii'' f. ''atropurpurea'' 'Atropurpurea Nana'.

The flowers are produced singly or in racemes of up to 20 on a single flower-head. They are yellow or orange, long, sepals are usually six, rarely three or nine and there are six petals in alternating whorls of three, the sepals usually coloured like the petals. The fruit is a small berry long, ripening red or dark blue, often with a pink or violet waxy surface bloom; in some species, they may be long and narrow, but are spherical in other species.

Some authors regard the compound-leaved species as belonging to a different genus, '' Mahonia''. There are no consistent differences between the two groups other than the leaf pinnation (''Berberis sensu stricto'' appear to have simple leaves, but these are in reality compound with a single leaflet; they are termed "unifoliolate"), and many botanists prefer to classify all these plants in the single genus ''Berberis''. However, a recent DNA-based phylogenetic study retains the two separate genera, by clarifying that unifoliolate-leaved ''Berberis s.s.'' is derived from within a paraphyletic group of shrubs bearing imparipinnate evergreen leaves, which the paper then divides into three genera: ''Mahonia'', '' Alloberberis'' (formerly ''Mahonia'' section ''Horridae''), and '' Moranothamnus'' (formerly ''Berberis claireae''); it confirms that a broadly-circumscribed ''Berberis'' (that is, including ''Mahonia'', ''Alloberberis'', and ''Moranothamnus'') is monophyletic.

Ecology

''Berberis'' species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the moths barberry carpet moth ('' Pareulype berberata''), and mottled pug ('' Eupithecia exiguata'').

''Berberis'' species can infect wheat with stem rust, a serious fungal disease of wheat and related grains. '' Berberis vulgaris'' (European barberry) and '' Berberis canadensis'' (American barberry) serve as alternate host species of the rust fungus responsible, the fungus ''Puccinia graminis''. For this reason, cultivation of ''B. vulgaris'' is prohibited in many areas, and imports to the United States are forbidden. The North American ''B. canadensis'', native to Appalachia and the Midwest United States, was nearly eradicated for this reason, and is now rarely seen extant, with the most remaining occurrences in the Virginia mountains.

Some ''Berberis'' species have become invasive when planted outside of their native ranges, including ''B. glaucocarpa'' and '' B. darwinii'' in New Zealand (where it is now banned from sale and propagation), and ''B. vulgaris'' and green-leaved '' B. thunbergii'' in much of the eastern United States.

Japanese barberry is considered an invasive plant in 32 US states. It is deer-resistant because of its taste and is favoured as a shelter for ticks capable of transmitting lyme disease.

Cultivation

Several species of ''Berberis'' are popular garden shrubs, grown for such features as ornamental leaves, yellow flowers, or red or blue-black berries. Numerous cultivars and hybrids have been selected for garden use. Low-growing ''Berberis'' plants are also commonly planted as pedestrian barriers. Taller-growing species are valued for crime prevention; being dense and viciously spiny, they are effective barriers to burglars. Thus they are often planted below vulnerable windows, and used as hedges. Many species are resistant to predation by deer.

Species in cultivation include:
* '' B. darwinii''
* '' B. dictyophylla''
* '' B. julianae''
* '' B. thunbergii''
* '' B. verruculosa''

The following hybrid selections have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
* ''B.'' 'Georgei'
* ''B.'' × ''lologensis'' 'Apricot Queen'
* ''B.'' × ''media'' 'Red Jewel'

* ''B.'' × ''stenophylla'' 'Corallina Compacta'
* ''B.'' × ''stenophylla'' (golden barberry)

Uses

Culinary

''Berberis vulgaris'' grows in the wild in much of Europe and West Asia. It produces large crops of edible berries, rich in vitamin C, but with a sharp acid flavour. In Europe for many centuries the berries were used for culinary purposes much as citrus peel is used. Today in Europe they are very infrequently used. The country in which they are used the most is Iran, where they are referred to as ''zereshk'' () in Persian. The berries are common in Persian cuisine in rice dishes such as ''zereshk polo'' (a dish of rice cooked in the Persian style with saffron and barberries, often served with chicken) and ''morassa polo'' (literal translation "bejewelled rice", an opulent dish of rice with barberries and slivers of pistachio, almond, and orange peel) and as a flavouring for poultry. Because of their sour flavour, they are sometimes cooked with sugar before being added to Persian rice. Iranian markets sell dried zereshk. By virtue of their limited availability, specialised growing conditions, and the complexity of the harvesting process, they are considered expensive and so are served in the finest of Persian dishes. In Russia and Eastern Europe, it is sometimes used in jams as a source of pectin (especially with mixed berries). An extract of barberries is a common flavouring for soft drinks, candies, and sweets.

'' Berberis microphylla'' and '' B. darwinii'' (both known as ''calafate'' and ''michay'') are two species found in Patagonia in Argentina and Chile. Their edible purple fruit are used for jams and infusions.

Traditional medicine

The dried fruit of '' Berberis vulgaris'' is used in herbal medicine. The chemical constituents include isoquinolone alkaloids, especially berberine. A full list of phytochemicals was compiled and published in 2014. The safety of using berberine for any condition is not adequately defined by high-quality clinical research. Its potential for causing adverse effects is high, including untoward interactions with prescription drugs, reducing the intended effect of established therapies. It is particularly unsafe for use in children.

Other uses

Historically, yellow dye was extracted from the stem, root, and bark.

The thorns of the barberry shrub have been used to clean ancient gold coins, as they are soft enough that they will not damage the surface but will remove corrosion and debris.

The acidic young leaves are sometimes chewed for refreshment by parched hikers.

Gallery

File:Berberis-aggregata.JPG, '' Berberis aggregata'' fruit
File:BerberisAculeata.jpg, '' B. aristata'', from the Himalayas
File:Berberis gagnepainii thorn.jpg, '' B. gagnepainii'' with thorn-leaves
File:Berberis gagnepainii flowers.jpg, '' B. gagnepainii'', flowers, wide
File:Berberis gagnepainii fruit.jpg, '' B. gagnepainii'', fruit
File:Berberis-thunbergii.JPG, '' B. thunbergii'' shrub
File:Berberis valdiviana 120502-2.jpg, '' B. valdiviana'', flowers from Chile (cultivated in the UK)
File:Berberis verruculosa leaves.jpg, '' B. verruculosa'', upper side of shoot above, lower side below
File:Berberis-vulgaris-flowers.jpg, '' B. vulgaris'' flowers and foliage, cultivated in Denmark
File:Berberis prattii1.jpg, '' B. prattii'' fruit
File:Barberry blossom in Eastern Siberia.jpg, Barberry blossom in Eastern Siberia

References

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Royal New Zealand Institute of horticulture. ''Berberis glaucocarpa''
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External links

{{Taxonbar, from=Q158503

Berberidaceae genera
Berries
CYP3A4 inhibitors
Medicinal plants
Plants used in bonsai
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus