''Plasmodium juxtanucleare'' is a species of parasite in the family

Plasmodiidae The Plasmodiidae are a family of apicomplexan parasites, including the type genus ''Plasmodium'', which is responsible for malaria. This family was erected in 1903 by Mesnil and is one of the four families in the order Haemospororida. Diagnos ...

. The vertebrate hosts for this parasite are

bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class (biology), class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the Oviparity, laying of Eggshell, hard-shelled eggs, a high Metabolism, metabolic rate, a fou ...

Description

This species was first described in 1941 by Versiani and Gomes.Versiani, V. & Gomes, B. F. 1941 Sobre um novo hematozoario da galinha: ''Plasmodium juxtanucleare'' n.sp. (Nota previa). Revista Brasileira de Biologia 1, 231–233. The subgenus is named after Professor Gordon F. Bennett. Parasite densities tend to be low (0.1–1% infected erythrocytes). Multiple infections of the same erythrocyte may occur. The

trophozoites A trophozoite (G. ''trope'', nourishment + ''zoon'', animal) is the activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of certain protozoa such as malaria-causing ''Plasmodium falciparum'' and those of the ''Giardia'' group. The complementary form of the t ...

have scanty cytoplasm and are irregular in shape. When fully grown they may be round, oval or irregular. They adhere closely to the nucleus and have 1-2 pigment granules. While a vacuole may be present there is no ring form unlike that of other species. The trophozoites produce two to six

merozoite Apicomplexans, a group of intracellular parasites, have life cycle stages that allow them to survive the wide variety of environments they are exposed to during their complex life cycle. Each stage in the life cycle of an apicomplexan organism i ...

s per erythrocyte. The merozoites have scanty cytoplasm and do not exceed the size of the nucleus when fully developed. The

schizont Apicomplexans, a group of intracellular parasites, have life cycle stages that allow them to survive the wide variety of environments they are exposed to during their complex life cycle. Each stage in the life cycle of an apicomplexan organism ...

s are small and always found juxtaposed to the erythrocyte nucleus. The

gametocyte A gametocyte is a eukaryotic germ cell that divides by mitosis into other gametocytes or by meiosis into gametids during gametogenesis. Male gametocytes are called ''spermatocytes'', and female gametocytes are called ''oocytes''. Development T ...

s resemble those of ''

Plasmodium relictum ''Plasmodium relictum'' is a species in the genus ''Plasmodium,'' subgenus '' Haemamoeba''. It is a parasite, and the most common cause of malaria in birds. Like all ''Plasmodium'' species, ''P. relictum'' has both vertebrate and insect hosts. ...

'' and may displace the nucleus. They are of variable shape:oval, round, elongated or even irregular. They do not exceed the size of the nucleus. Perhaps the most characteristic feature of this genus is the formation of pedunculated oocyts in the mosquito

midgut The midgut is the portion of the human embryo from which almost all of the small intestine and approximately half of the large intestine develop. After it bends around the superior mesenteric artery, it is called the "midgut loop". It comprises ...

Distribution

This species is found in a number of countries including Brasil, India, Indonesia, Japan, Philippines, Malaysia, Mexico, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Tanzania and Uruguay. It is thought that this species probably originated in South East Asia but this requires confirmation.

Clinical features and host pathology

The disease caused by this parasite is similar to that caused by ''

Leucocytozoon caulleryi ''Leucocytozoon caulleryi'' is a species of the genus '' Leucocytozoon'', a genus of parasitic alveolates. This species has both insect (''Culicoides'' species) and vertebrate (birds) hosts. Description History This species was originally desc ...

''. ''P. juxtanucleare'' is one of the causes of

chicken The chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is a domesticated subspecies of the red junglefowl (''Gallus gallus''), originally native to Southeast Asia. It was first domesticated around 8,000 years ago and is now one of the most common and w ...

malaria Malaria is a Mosquito-borne disease, mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects vertebrates and ''Anopheles'' mosquitoes. Human malaria causes Signs and symptoms, symptoms that typically include fever, Fatigue (medical), fatigue, vomitin ...

. Clinical findings associated with high parasitemia are

anemia Anemia (also spelt anaemia in British English) is a blood disorder in which the blood has a reduced ability to carry oxygen. This can be due to a lower than normal number of red blood cells, a reduction in the amount of hemoglobin availabl ...

diarrhea Diarrhea (American English), also spelled diarrhoea or diarrhœa (British English), is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements in a day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration d ...

and weight loss that may lead to death. Body temperature is not elevated. Increases in the

thrombocyte Platelets or thrombocytes () are a part of blood whose function (along with the coagulation factors) is to react to bleeding from blood vessel injury by clumping to form a blood clot. Platelets have no cell nucleus; they are fragments of cytop ...

number and total

leukocyte White blood cells (scientific name leukocytes), also called immune cells or immunocytes, are cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign entities. White blood cells are genera ...

and

basophil Basophils are a type of white blood cell White blood cells (scientific name leukocytes), also called immune cells or immunocytes, are cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and f ...

count have been reported.Silveira P., Damatta R.A., Dagosto M. (2009) Hematological changes of chickens experimentally infected with ''Plasmodium (Bennettinia) juxtanucleare''. Vet. Parasitol. The course of the parasitemia showed low levels initially and reaching a peak after 15 days;

trophozoite A trophozoite (G. ''trope'', nourishment + ''zoon'', animal) is the activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of certain protozoa such as malaria-causing ''Plasmodium falciparum'' and those of the ''Giardia'' group. The complementary form of the t ...

s were the most commonly observed form, followed by

s (first detected on day 12) and

s (first seen on day 27). The typical distribution after the gametocytes have appeared is trophozoites (80%) schizonts (17%) and gametocytes (3%). ''P. juxtanucleare'' also infects black-footed penguins. Five fatal cases were reported in a Sounth African zoo. Laboratory findings included parasitemia, splenomegaly, pulmonary oedema and schizonts in the reticuloendothelial system.Grim K.C., Van der Merwe E., Sullivan M., Parsons N., McCutchan T.F. and Cranfield M. (2003) Plasmodium juxtanucleare associated with mortality in black-footed penguins (''Spheniscus demersus'') admitted to a rehabilitation center. J. Zoo Wildlife Med. 34 (3) This species infects the

Chinese bamboo partridge The Chinese bamboo partridge (''Bambusicola thoracicus'') is a small Galliform bird. It is one of three species in the genus '' Bambusicola'', along with the mountain bamboo partridge of the Himalayas, and the Taiwan bamboo partridge of Taiwan ...

, white eared-pheasant, Malayan jungle fowl ('' Gallus gallus spadiceus''),

Sri Lankan junglefowl The Sri Lankan junglefowl (''Gallus lafayettii'' sometimes spelled ''Gallus lafayetii''), also known as the Ceylon junglefowl or Lafayette's junglefowl, is a member of the Galliformes bird order. It is a common endemic bird in Sri Lanka, where it ...

grey-winged francolin The grey-winged francolin (''Scleroptila afra'') is a species of bird in the family Phasianidae. It is found in Lesotho and South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost co ...

crested francolin The crested francolin (''Ortygornis sephaena'') is a species of bird in the family Phasianidae. It is found in southern Africa. One of its subspecies, ''Ortygornis sephaena rovuma'', is sometimes considered a separate species, Kirk's francolin. ...

wild turkey The wild turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo'') is an upland game bird native to North America, one of two extant species of Turkey (bird), turkey and the heaviest member of the order Galliformes. It is the ancestor to the domestic turkey (''M. g. dom ...

and the

Indian peafowl The Indian peafowl (''Pavo cristatus''), also known as the common peafowl, or blue peafowl, is a peafowl species native to the Indian subcontinent. While it originated in the Indian subcontinent, it has since been introduced to many other part ...

Known vectors

'' Culex annulus''
'' Culex gelidus''
'' Culex molestus Forskal''
'' Culex pipiens fatigens''
'' Culex pipiens pallus''
''

Culex pseudovishnui ''Culex (Culex) pseudovishnui'' is a species complex of mosquito belonging to the '' Culex vishnui'' group of the genus ''Culex''. It is found in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Japan, South Korea, Laos, Maca ...

''
'' Culex saltanensis Dyar 1928''
'' Culex (Culex) sitiens Wiedmann''
''

Culex tritaeniorhynchus ''Culex (Culex) tritaeniorhynchus'' is a species of mosquito and is the main vector of the disease Japanese encephalitis. This mosquito is a native of northern Asia, and parts of Africa (northeast and sub-Saharan). Females target large animal ...

'' '' Mansonia crassipes''

Bennettinia

''Bennettinia'' is a subgenus of ''Plasmodium'' created in 1997 by Valkiunas. CABDbr>19980804939
in honour of the

parasitologist Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it f ...

Gordon F. Bennett. . . ''Plasmodium juxtanucleare'' is the sole species in this subgenus.

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Plasmodium Juxtanucleare juxtanucleare Parasites of birds