
Benedict Arnold (
[ Brandt (1994), p. 4]June 14, 1801) was an American-born British military officer who served during the
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was the armed conflict that comprised the final eight years of the broader American Revolution, in which Am ...
. He fought with distinction for the American
Continental Army
The Continental Army was the army of the United Colonies representing the Thirteen Colonies and later the United States during the American Revolutionary War. It was formed on June 14, 1775, by a resolution passed by the Second Continental Co ...
and rose to the rank of major general before defecting to the British in 1780. General
George Washington
George Washington (, 1799) was a Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. As commander of the Continental Army, Washington led Patriot (American Revoluti ...
had given him his fullest trust and had placed him in command of
West Point
The United States Military Academy (USMA), commonly known as West Point, is a United States service academies, United States service academy in West Point, New York that educates cadets for service as Officer_(armed_forces)#United_States, comm ...
in
New York. Arnold was planning to surrender the fort to British forces, but the plot was discovered in September 1780, whereupon he fled to the British lines. In the later part of the war, Arnold was commissioned as a brigadier general in the
British Army
The British Army is the principal Army, land warfare force of the United Kingdom. the British Army comprises 73,847 regular full-time personnel, 4,127 Brigade of Gurkhas, Gurkhas, 25,742 Army Reserve (United Kingdom), volunteer reserve perso ...
and placed in command of the
American Legion
The American Legion, commonly known as the Legion, is an Voluntary association, organization of United States, U.S. war veterans headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana. It comprises U.S. state, state, Territories of the United States, U.S. terr ...
. He led British forces in battle against the army which he had once commanded, and his name became synonymous with
treason
Treason is the crime of attacking a state (polity), state authority to which one owes allegiance. This typically includes acts such as participating in a war against one's native country, attempting to Coup d'état, overthrow its government, spy ...
and
betrayal in the United States.
[ Rogets (2008)]
Born in
Connecticut
Connecticut ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York (state), New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. ...
, Arnold was a merchant operating ships in the Atlantic when the war began. He joined the growing American army outside of
Boston
Boston is the capital and most populous city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city serves as the cultural and Financial centre, financial center of New England, a region of the Northeas ...
and distinguished himself by acts that demonstrated intelligence and bravery: In 1775, he
captured Fort Ticonderoga. In 1776, he employed defensive and delay tactics at the
Battle of Valcour Island
The Battle of Valcour Island, also known as the Battle of Valcour Bay, was a naval engagement that took place on October 11, 1776, on Lake Champlain. The main action took place in Valcour Bay, a narrow strait between the Province of New York, Ne ...
on
Lake Champlain
Lake Champlain ( ; , ) is a natural freshwater lake in North America. It mostly lies between the U.S. states of New York (state), New York and Vermont, but also extends north into the Canadian province of Quebec.
The cities of Burlington, Ve ...
that gave American forces time to prepare New York's defenses. His performance in the
Battle of Ridgefield
The Battle of Ridgefield was a series of American Revolutionary War skirmishes in Danbury, Connecticut and Ridgefield, Connecticut.
History
On April 25, a British Army during the American Revolutionary War, British force under the command of th ...
in Connecticut prompted his promotion to major general. He conducted operations that provided the Americans with relief during the
Siege of Fort Stanwix, and key actions during the pivotal 1777
Battles of Saratoga in which he sustained leg injuries that put him out of combat for several years.
Arnold repeatedly claimed that he was being passed over for promotion by the
Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress (1775–1781) was the meetings of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that united in support of the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War, which established American independence ...
, and that other officers were being given credit for some of his accomplishments.
[ Martin (1997)] Some in his military and political circles charged him with
corruption
Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense that is undertaken by a person or an organization that is entrusted in a position of authority to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's gain. Corruption may involve activities ...
. After formal inquiries he was
acquitted
In common law jurisdictions, an acquittal means that the criminal prosecution has failed to prove that the accused is guilty beyond a reasonable doubt of the charge presented. It certifies that the accused is free from the charge of an o ...
of all but two minor charges, but Congress investigated his finances and determined that he was indebted to Congress and that he had borrowed money heavily to maintain a lavish lifestyle.
Arnold mingled with
Loyalist
Loyalism, in the United Kingdom, its overseas territories and its former colonies, refers to the allegiance to the British crown or the United Kingdom. In North America, the most common usage of the term refers to loyalty to the British Cr ...
sympathizers in
Philadelphia
Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
and married into the Loyalist family of
Peggy Shippen
Margaret Shippen (July 11, 1760 – August 24, 1804) was the second wife of General Benedict Arnold. She has been described as "the highest-paid spy in the American Revolution".
Shippen was born into a prominent Philadelphia family with Loyalist ...
. She was a close friend of British Major
John André
Major John André (May 2, 1750 – October 2, 1780) was a British Army officer who served as the head of Britain's intelligence operations during the American War for Independence. In September 1780, he negotiated with Continental Army offic ...
and kept in contact with him when he became head of the British espionage system in New York. Many historians see her as having facilitated Arnold's plans to switch sides; he opened secret negotiations with André, and she relayed their messages to each other. The British promised £20,000 () for the capture of West Point, a major American stronghold. Washington greatly admired Arnold and gave him command of that fort in July 1780. Arnold's plan was to surrender the fort to the British, but it was exposed in September 1780 when American militiamen captured André carrying papers which revealed the plot. Arnold escaped and André was
hanged.
Arnold received a
commission
In-Commission or commissioning may refer to:
Business and contracting
* Commission (remuneration), a form of payment to an agent for services rendered
** Commission (art), the purchase or the creation of a piece of art most often on behalf of anot ...
as a brigadier general in the British Army, an annual pension of £360 () and a lump sum of over £6,000 ().
He led British forces in the
raid on Richmond and oversaw a raid on
New London, Connecticut
New London is a seaport city and a port of entry on the northeast coast of the United States, located at the outlet of the Thames River (Connecticut), Thames River in New London County, Connecticut, which empties into Long Island Sound. The cit ...
, which burned much of it to the ground. Arnold also commanded British forces at the
Battle of Blandford and the
Battle of Groton Heights, the latter taking place just a few miles downriver from the town where he had grown up. In the winter of 1782, he and Shippen moved to
London
London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
. He was well received by King
George III
George III (George William Frederick; 4 June 173829 January 1820) was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland, Ireland from 25 October 1760 until his death in 1820. The Acts of Union 1800 unified Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain and ...
and the
Tories but frowned upon by the
Whigs and most British Army officers. In 1787, he moved to the
colony of New Brunswick in what is now Canada to run a merchant business with his sons Richard and Henry. He was extremely unpopular there and returned to London permanently in 1791, where he died ten years later.
Early life
Benedict Arnold was born the second of six children of his father Benedict Arnold III (1683–1761) and
Hannah Waterman King in
Norwich
Norwich () is a cathedral city and district of the county of Norfolk, England, of which it is the county town. It lies by the River Wensum, about north-east of London, north of Ipswich and east of Peterborough. The population of the Norwich ...
,
Connecticut Colony
The Connecticut Colony, originally known as the Connecticut River Colony, was an English colony in New England which later became the state of Connecticut. It was organized on March 3, 1636, as a settlement for a Puritans, Puritan congregation o ...
, on January 14, 1741.
[ Murphy (2007), pp. 5, 8] Arnold was the fourth member of his family named after his great-grandfather
Benedict Arnold I, an early governor of the
Colony of Rhode Island; his grandfather (Benedict Arnold II) and father, as well as an older brother who died in infancy, were also named for the colonial governor.
Only he and his sister Hannah survived to adulthood; his other siblings died from
yellow fever in childhood.
[ Brandt (1994), pp. 5–6] Arnold's siblings were, in order of birth: Benedict (1738–1739), Hannah (1742–1803), Mary (1745–1753), Absolom (1747–1750) and Elizabeth (1749–1755). Through his maternal grandmother, Arnold was a descendant of
John Lothropp, an ancestor of six presidents.
[ Price (1984), pp. 38–39]
Arnold's father was a successful businessman, and the family moved in the upper levels of Norwich society. He was enrolled in a private school in nearby
Canterbury
Canterbury (, ) is a City status in the United Kingdom, city and UNESCO World Heritage Site, in the county of Kent, England; it was a county borough until 1974. It lies on the River Stour, Kent, River Stour. The city has a mild oceanic climat ...
when he was aged 10, with the expectation that he would eventually attend
Yale College
Yale College is the undergraduate college of Yale University. Founded in 1701, it is the original school of the university. Although other Yale schools were founded as early as 1810, all of Yale was officially known as Yale College until 1887, ...
. However, the deaths of his siblings two years later may have contributed to a decline in the family fortunes, since his father took up drinking. By the time that Arnold was aged 14, there was no money for private education. His father's
alcoholism
Alcoholism is the continued drinking of alcohol despite it causing problems. Some definitions require evidence of dependence and withdrawal. Problematic use of alcohol has been mentioned in the earliest historical records. The World He ...
and ill health kept him from training Arnold in the family mercantile business, but his mother's family connections secured an
apprenticeship
Apprenticeship is a system for training a potential new practitioners of a trade or profession with on-the-job training and often some accompanying study. Apprenticeships may also enable practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulat ...
for him with her cousins Daniel and Joshua Lathrop, who operated a successful
apothecary
''Apothecary'' () is an Early Modern English, archaic English term for a medicine, medical professional who formulates and dispenses ''materia medica'' (medicine) to physicians, surgeons and patients. The modern terms ''pharmacist'' and, in Brit ...
and general merchandise trade in Norwich.
[ Brandt (1994), p. 6] His apprenticeship with the Lathrops lasted seven years.
[ Brandt (1994), p. 7]
Arnold was very close to his mother, who died in 1759. His father's alcoholism worsened after her death, and the youth took on the responsibility of supporting his father and younger sister. The elder Arnold was arrested on several occasions for public drunkenness, was refused
communion by his church and died in 1761.
French and Indian War
In 1755, Arnold was attracted by the sound of a drummer and attempted to enlist in the
Connecticut provincial militia for service in the
French and Indian War
The French and Indian War, 1754 to 1763, was a colonial conflict in North America between Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain and Kingdom of France, France, along with their respective Native Americans in the United States, Native American ...
, but his mother refused permission.
[ Flexner (1953), p. 7] In 1757, when he was aged 16, Arnold did enlist in the Connecticut militia, which marched off toward
Albany,
New York, and
Lake George. The French had
besieged Fort William Henry in northeastern New York, and their Indian allies had committed atrocities after their victory. Word of the siege's disastrous outcome led the company to turn around, and Arnold served for only thirteen days.
[ Flexner (1953), p. 8] A commonly accepted story that he deserted from militia service in 1758
[ Randall (1990), p. 32] is based on uncertain documentary evidence.
[ Murphy (2007), p. 18]
Colonial merchant
Arnold established himself in business in 1762 as a pharmacist and bookseller in
New Haven, Connecticut
New Haven is a city of the U.S. state of Connecticut. It is located on New Haven Harbor on the northern shore of Long Island Sound. With a population of 135,081 as determined by the 2020 United States census, 2020 U.S. census, New Haven is List ...
, with the help of the Lathrops.
[ Brandt (1994), p. 8] He was hardworking and successful, and was able to rapidly expand his business. In 1763, he repaid money that he had borrowed from the Lathrops,
[ Brandt (1994), p. 10] repurchased the family homestead that his father had sold when deeply in debt and re-sold it a year later for a substantial profit. In 1764 he formed a partnership with Adam Babcock, another young New Haven merchant. They bought three trading ships, using the profits from the sale of his homestead, and established a lucrative
West Indies
The West Indies is an island subregion of the Americas, surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, which comprises 13 independent island country, island countries and 19 dependent territory, dependencies in thr ...
trade.
During this time, Arnold brought his sister Hannah to New Haven and established her in his apothecary to manage the business in his absence. He traveled extensively in the course of his business throughout
New England
New England is a region consisting of six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York (state), New York to the west and by the ...
and from
Quebec
Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...
to the West Indies, often in command of one of his own ships.
[ Flexner (1953), p. 13] Some sources allege that on one of his voyages he fought a
duel
A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two people with matched weapons.
During the 17th and 18th centuries (and earlier), duels were mostly single combats fought with swords (the rapier and later the small sword), but beginning in ...
in Honduras with a British sea captain who had called him a "damned
Yankee
The term ''Yankee'' and its contracted form ''Yank'' have several interrelated meanings, all referring to people from the United States. Their various meanings depend on the context, and may refer to New Englanders, the Northeastern United Stat ...
, destitute of good manners or those of a gentleman."
[ Murphy (2007), p. 38][ Roth (1995), p. 75] The captain was wounded in the first exchange of gunfire, and he apologized when Arnold threatened to aim to kill on the second.
[ Flexner (1953), p. 17] However, it is unknown whether this encounter actually happened or not, and some historians characterize the alleged duel as a fabrication.

The
Sugar Act 1764 and the
Stamp Act 1765
The Stamp Act 1765, also known as the Duties in American Colonies Act 1765 (5 Geo. 3. c. 12), was an Act of Parliament (United Kingdom), act of the Parliament of Great Britain which imposed a direct tax on the British America, British coloni ...
severely curtailed mercantile trade in the colonies.
[ Randall (1990), p. 46] The Stamp Act prompted Arnold to join the chorus of voices in opposition, and also led to his joining the
Sons of Liberty
The Sons of Liberty was a loosely organized, clandestine, sometimes violent, political organization active in the Thirteen American Colonies founded to advance the rights of the colonists and to fight taxation by the British government. It p ...
, a secret organization which advocated resistance to those and other restrictive
Parliamentary
In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...
measures.
[ Randall (1990), p. 49] Arnold initially took no part in any public demonstrations but, like many merchants, continued to do business openly in defiance of the acts, which legally amounted to
smuggling
Smuggling is the illegal transportation of objects, substances, information or people, such as out of a house or buildings, into a prison, or across an international border, in violation of applicable laws or other regulations. More broadly, soc ...
. He also faced financial ruin, falling £16,000 () in debt with creditors spreading rumors of his
insolvency
In accounting, insolvency is the state of being unable to pay the debts, by a person or company ( debtor), at maturity; those in a state of insolvency are said to be ''insolvent''. There are two forms: cash-flow insolvency and balance-sheet i ...
, to the point where he took legal action against them.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 52–53] On the night of January 28, 1767, Arnold and members of his crew roughed up a man suspected of attempting to inform authorities of their smuggling. He was convicted of
disorderly conduct and fined the relatively small amount of 50
shilling
The shilling is a historical coin, and the name of a unit of modern currency, currencies formerly used in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, other British Commonwealth countries and Ireland, where they were generally equivalent to 1 ...
s; publicity of the case and widespread sympathy for his views probably contributed to the light sentence.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 56–60]
On February 22, 1767, Arnold married Margaret Mansfield, daughter of Samuel Mansfield, the sheriff of New Haven and a fellow member in the local
Masonic
Freemasonry (sometimes spelled Free-Masonry) consists of fraternal groups that trace their origins to the medieval guilds of stonemasons. Freemasonry is the oldest secular fraternity in the world and among the oldest still-existing organizati ...
lodge.
Their son Benedict was born the following year
[ Brandt (1994), p. 14] and was followed by brothers Richard in 1769 and Henry in 1772.
[ Randall (1990), p. 62] Margaret died on June 19, 1775, while Arnold was at
Fort Ticonderoga
Fort Ticonderoga (), formerly Fort Carillon, is a large 18th-century star fort built by the French at a narrows near the south end of Lake Champlain in northern New York. It was constructed between October 1755 and 1757 by French-Canadian ...
following its capture.
[ Brandt (1994), p. 38] She is buried in the crypt of the
Center Church on New Haven Green. The household was dominated by Arnold's sister Hannah, even while Margaret was alive. Arnold benefited from his relationship with Mansfield, who became a partner in his business and used his position as sheriff to shield him from creditors.
[ Randall (1990), p. 64]
Arnold was in the West Indies when the
Boston Massacre
The Boston Massacre, known in Great Britain as the Incident on King Street, was a confrontation, on March 5, 1770, during the American Revolution in Boston in what was then the colonial-era Province of Massachusetts Bay.
In the confrontati ...
took place on March 5, 1770. He wrote that he was "very much shocked" and wondered "good God, are the Americans all asleep and tamely giving up their liberties, or are they all turned philosophers, that they don't take immediate vengeance on such miscreants?"
[ Randall (1990), p. 68]
Revolutionary War (American service)
Siege of Boston and Fort Ticonderoga

Arnold began the war as a captain in the Connecticut militia, a position to which he was elected in March 1775. His company marched northeast the following month to assist in the
Siege of Boston
The siege of Boston (April 19, 1775 – March 17, 1776) was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War. In the siege, Patriot (American Revolution), American patriot militia led by newly-installed Continental Army commander George Wash ...
that followed the
Battles of Lexington and Concord
The Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775 were the first major military actions of the American Revolutionary War between the Kingdom of Great Britain and Patriot (American Revolution), Patriot militias from America's Thirteen Co ...
. He proposed an action to the
Massachusetts
Massachusetts ( ; ), officially the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Maine to its east, Connecticut and Rhode ...
Committee of Safety to seize Fort Ticonderoga in upstate New York, which he knew was poorly defended. They issued him a colonel's commission on May 3, 1775, and he immediately rode off to
Castleton in the disputed
New Hampshire Grants
The New Hampshire Grants or Benning Wentworth Grants were land grants made between 1749 and 1764 by the colonial governor of the Province of New Hampshire, Benning Wentworth. The land grants, totaling about 135 (including 131 towns), were made ...
(
Vermont
Vermont () is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York (state), New York to the west, and the Provinces and territories of Ca ...
) in time to participate with
Ethan Allen
Ethan Allen ( – February 12, 1789) was an American farmer, writer, military officer and politician. He is best known as one of the founders of Vermont and for the capture of Fort Ticonderoga during the American Revolutionary War, and wa ...
and his men in the
capture of Fort Ticonderoga
The capture of Fort Ticonderoga occurred during the American Revolutionary War on May 10, 1775, when a small force of Green Mountain Boys led by Ethan Allen and Colonel Benedict Arnold surprised and captured the fort's small British garrison. T ...
. He followed up that action with a bold raid on
Fort Saint-Jean on the
Richelieu River
The Richelieu River () is a river of Quebec, Canada, and a major right-bank tributary of the St. Lawrence River. It rises at Lake Champlain, from which it flows northward through Quebec and empties into the St. Lawrence. It was formerly kno ...
north of
Lake Champlain
Lake Champlain ( ; , ) is a natural freshwater lake in North America. It mostly lies between the U.S. states of New York (state), New York and Vermont, but also extends north into the Canadian province of Quebec.
The cities of Burlington, Ve ...
. A Connecticut militia force arrived at Ticonderoga in June; Arnold had a dispute with its commander over control of the fort, and resigned his Massachusetts commission. He was on his way home from Ticonderoga when he learned that his wife had died earlier in June.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 78–132]
Quebec expedition
The
Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress (1775–1781) was the meetings of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that united in support of the American Revolution and American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War, which established American independence ...
authorized an
invasion of Quebec, in part on the urging of Arnold, but he was passed over for command of the expedition. He then went to
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Cambridge ( ) is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. It is a suburb in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, located directly across the Charles River from Boston. The city's population as of the 2020 United States census, ...
, and suggested to
George Washington
George Washington (, 1799) was a Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. As commander of the Continental Army, Washington led Patriot (American Revoluti ...
a second expedition to attack
Quebec City
Quebec City is the capital city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Quebec. As of July 2021, the city had a population of 549,459, and the Census Metropolitan Area (including surrounding communities) had a populati ...
via a wilderness route through present-day
Maine
Maine ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the United States, and the northeasternmost state in the Contiguous United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Provinces and ...
. He received a colonel's commission in the Continental Army for
this expedition and left Cambridge in September 1775 with 1,100 men. He arrived before Quebec City in November, after a difficult passage in which 300 men turned back and another 200 died en route. Arnold's forces were joined by
Richard Montgomery
Richard Montgomery (2 December 1738 – 31 December 1775) was an Irish-born American military officer who first served in the British Army. He later became a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, and ...
's small army and participated in the December 31
assault on Quebec City in which Montgomery was killed and Arnold's leg was shattered. Arnold's chaplain, Rev.
Samuel Spring, carried him to the makeshift hospital at the Hôtel Dieu. Arnold was promoted to brigadier general for his role in reaching Quebec, and he maintained an ineffectual siege of the city until he was replaced by Major General
David Wooster in April 1776.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 131–228]
Arnold then traveled to
Montreal
Montreal is the List of towns in Quebec, largest city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Quebec, the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-largest in Canada, and the List of North American cit ...
, where he served as military commander of the city until forced to retreat by an advancing British army that had arrived at Quebec in May. He presided over the rear of the Continental Army during its retreat from Saint-Jean, where he was reported by
James Wilkinson
James Wilkinson (March 24, 1757 – December 28, 1825) was an American army officer and politician who was associated with multiple scandals and controversies during his life, including the Burr conspiracy.
He served in the Continental Army du ...
to be the last person to leave before the British arrived. He then directed the construction of a fleet to defend Lake Champlain, which was overmatched and defeated in the
Battle of Valcour Island
The Battle of Valcour Island, also known as the Battle of Valcour Bay, was a naval engagement that took place on October 11, 1776, on Lake Champlain. The main action took place in Valcour Bay, a narrow strait between the Province of New York, Ne ...
in October 1776. However, his actions at Saint-Jean and Valcour Island played a notable role in delaying the British advance against Fort Ticonderoga until 1777.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 228–320]
During these actions, Arnold made a number of friends and a larger number of enemies within the army power structure and in Congress. He had established a decent relationship with Washington, as well as
Philip Schuyler
Philip John Schuyler (; November 20, 1733 - November 18, 1804) was an American general in the American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War and a United States Senate, United States Senator from New York (state), New York. He is usually known as ...
and
Horatio Gates, both of whom had command of the army's Northern Department during 1775 and 1776.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 318–323] However, an acrimonious dispute with
Moses Hazen, commander of the
2nd Canadian Regiment, boiled into Hazen's
court martial
A court-martial (plural ''courts-martial'' or ''courts martial'', as "martial" is a postpositive adjective) is a military court or a trial conducted in such a court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of members of the mili ...
at Fort Ticonderoga during the summer of 1776. Only action by Arnold's superior at Ticonderoga prevented his own arrest on countercharges leveled by Hazen.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 262–264] Arnold also had disagreements with
John Brown and James Easton, two lower-level officers with political connections that resulted in ongoing suggestions of improprieties on his part. Brown was particularly vicious, publishing a
handbill which claimed of Arnold, "Money is this man's God, and to get enough of it he would sacrifice his country."
Rhode Island and Philadelphia

Washington assigned Arnold to the defense of
Rhode Island
Rhode Island ( ) is a state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Connecticut to its west; Massachusetts to its north and east; and the Atlantic Ocean to its south via Rhode Island Sound and Block Is ...
following the British capture of
Newport in December 1776, where the local militia were too poorly equipped to even consider a counterattack.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 323–325] He took the opportunity to visit his children while near his home in New Haven, and he spent much of the winter socializing in Boston, where he unsuccessfully courted a young belle named Betsy Deblois.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 324–327] In February 1777, Arnold learned that he had been passed over by Congress for promotion to major general. Washington refused his offer to resign, and wrote to members of Congress in an attempt to correct this, noting that "two or three other very good officers" might be lost if they persisted in making politically motivated promotions.
[ Brandt (1994), p. 118]
Arnold was on his way to
Philadelphia
Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
to discuss his future when he was alerted that a British force was marching toward a supply depot in
Danbury, Connecticut
Danbury ( ) is a city in Fairfield County, Connecticut, United States, located approximately northeast of New York City. Danbury's population as of 2020 was 86,518. It is the third-largest city in Western Connecticut, and the seventh-largest ...
.
[ Randall (1990), p. 332] He organized the militia response, along with Wooster and Connecticut militia General
Gold Selleck Silliman. He then led a small contingent of militia attempting to stop or slow the British return to the coast in the
Battle of Ridgefield
The Battle of Ridgefield was a series of American Revolutionary War skirmishes in Danbury, Connecticut and Ridgefield, Connecticut.
History
On April 25, a British Army during the American Revolutionary War, British force under the command of th ...
,
[ Ward (1952), p. 494] and was again wounded in his left leg.
Arnold then continued on to Philadelphia, where he met with members of Congress about his rank. His action at Ridgefield, coupled with the death of Wooster due to wounds sustained in the action, resulted in his promotion to major general, although his seniority was not restored over those who had been promoted before him.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 332–334] Amid negotiations over that issue, Arnold wrote out a letter of resignation on July 11, the same day that word arrived in Philadelphia that
Fort Ticonderoga had fallen to the British. Washington refused his resignation and ordered him north to assist with the defense there.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 339–342]
Saratoga campaign

Arnold arrived in Schuyler's camp at
Fort Edward, New York, on July 24. On August 13, Schuyler dispatched him with a force of 900 to relieve the
Siege of Fort Stanwix, where he succeeded in a ruse to lift the siege. Arnold sent an Indian messenger into the camp of British Brigadier-General
Barry St. Leger with news that the approaching force was much larger and closer than it actually was; this convinced St. Leger's Indian allies to abandon him, forcing him to give up the effort.
Arnold returned to the
Hudson River
The Hudson River, historically the North River, is a river that flows from north to south largely through eastern New York (state), New York state. It originates in the Adirondack Mountains at Henderson Lake (New York), Henderson Lake in the ...
, where General Gates had taken over command of the American army after they had retreated to a camp south of
Stillwater.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 346–348] He then distinguished himself in both
Battles of Saratoga, even though Gates removed him from field command after the first battle following a series of escalating disagreements that culminated in a shouting match.
[ Randall (1990), p. 360] During the fighting in the second battle, Arnold disobeyed Gates' orders and took to the battlefield to lead attacks on the British defenses. He was again severely wounded in the left leg late in the fighting. Arnold later said that it would have been better had it been in the chest instead of the leg.
[ Randall (1990), pp. 350–368] Burgoyne surrendered ten days after the second battle on October 17, 1777. Congress restored Arnold's command seniority in response to his valor at Saratoga.
[ Randall (1990), p. 372] However, he interpreted the manner in which they did so as an act of sympathy for his wounds, and not an apology or recognition that they were righting a wrong.
[ Palmer (2006), p. 256]
Arnold spent several months recovering from his injuries. He had his leg crudely set rather than allowing it to be
amputated, leaving it shorter than the right. He returned to the army at
Valley Forge
Valley Forge was the winter encampment of the Continental Army, under the command of George Washington, during the American Revolutionary War. The Valley Forge encampment lasted six months, from December 19, 1777, to June 19, 1778. It was the t ...
,
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a U.S. state, state spanning the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic, Northeastern United States, Northeastern, Appalachian, and Great Lakes region, Great Lakes regions o ...
, in May 1778 to the applause of men who had served under him at Saratoga.
[ Brandt (1994), pp. 141–146] There he participated in the first recorded
oath of allegiance
An oath of allegiance is an oath whereby a subject or citizen acknowledges a duty of allegiance and swears loyalty to a monarch or a country. In modern republics, oaths are sworn to the country in general, or to the country's constitution. For ...
, along with many other soldiers, as a sign of loyalty to the United States.
[ Brandt (1994), p. 147]
Residence in Philadelphia
When the British withdrew from Philadelphia in June 1778, Washington appointed Arnold military commander of the city.
[ Brandt (1994), p. 146] Historian John Shy states:
:Washington then made one of the worst decisions of his career, appointing Arnold as military governor of the rich, politically divided city. No one could have been less qualified for the position. Arnold had amply demonstrated his tendency to become embroiled in disputes, as well as his lack of political sense. Above all, he needed tact, patience, and fairness in dealing with a people deeply marked by months of enemy occupation.
Arnold began planning to capitalize financially on the change in power in Philadelphia, even before the Americans reoccupied their city. He engaged in a variety of business deals designed to profit from war-related supply movements and benefiting from the protection of his authority.
[ Brandt (1994), pp. 148–149] Such schemes were not uncommon among American officers, but Arnold's schemes were sometimes frustrated by local politicians such as
Joseph Reed, who eventually amassed enough evidence to publicly air charges of
corruption
Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense that is undertaken by a person or an organization that is entrusted in a position of authority to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's gain. Corruption may involve activities ...
against him. Arnold demanded a court martial to clear the charges, writing to Washington in May 1779: "Having become a cripple in the service of my country, I little expected to meet ungrateful returns."
[ Martin (1997), p. 428]

Arnold lived extravagantly in Philadelphia and was a prominent figure on the social scene. During the summer of 1778 he met
Peggy Shippen
Margaret Shippen (July 11, 1760 – August 24, 1804) was the second wife of General Benedict Arnold. She has been described as "the highest-paid spy in the American Revolution".
Shippen was born into a prominent Philadelphia family with Loyalist ...
, the 18-year-old daughter of Judge
Edward Shippen IV, a
Loyalist
Loyalism, in the United Kingdom, its overseas territories and its former colonies, refers to the allegiance to the British crown or the United Kingdom. In North America, the most common usage of the term refers to loyalty to the British Cr ...
sympathizer who had done business with the British while they occupied the city;
[ Randall (1990), p. 420] Peggy had been courted by Major
John André
Major John André (May 2, 1750 – October 2, 1780) was a British Army officer who served as the head of Britain's intelligence operations during the American War for Independence. In September 1780, he negotiated with Continental Army offic ...
during the occupation.
[ Edward Shippen biography] She married Arnold on April 8, 1779.
[ Randall (1990), p. 448] Shippen and her circle of friends had found methods of staying in contact with paramours across the battle lines, despite military bans on communication with the enemy.
[ Randall (1990), p. 455] Some of this communication was effected through the services of Joseph Stansbury, a Philadelphia merchant.
[ Randall (1990), p. 456]
Plotting to change sides

Historians have identified many possible factors contributing to Arnold's
treason
Treason is the crime of attacking a state (polity), state authority to which one owes allegiance. This typically includes acts such as participating in a war against one's native country, attempting to Coup d'état, overthrow its government, spy ...
, while some debate their relative importance. According to
W. D. Wetherell, Arnold was:
Wetherell says that the shortest explanation for Arnold's treason is that he "married the wrong person."
[
Arnold had been badly wounded twice in battle and had lost his business in Connecticut, which made him profoundly bitter. He grew resentful of several rival and younger generals who had been promoted ahead of him and given honors which he thought he deserved. Especially galling was a long feud with the civil authorities in Philadelphia which led to his court martial. He was also convicted of two minor charges of using his authority to make a profit. Washington gave him a light reprimand, but it merely heightened Arnold's sense of betrayal; nonetheless, he had already opened negotiations with the British before his court martial had even begun. Arnold later said in his own defense that he was loyal to his true beliefs, yet he lied at the same time by insisting that Shippen was totally innocent and ignorant of his plans.
As early as 1778, there were signs that Arnold was unhappy with his situation and pessimistic about the country's future. On November 10, 1778, Major General ]Nathanael Greene
Major general (United States), Major General Nathanael Greene (August 7, 1742 – June 19, 1786) was an American military officer and planter who served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, Revolutionary War. He emerge ...
wrote to Brigadier General John Cadwalader, "I am told General Arnold is become very unpopular among you oweing to his associateing too much with the Tories."[ Showman (1983), p. 3:57] A few days later, Arnold wrote to Greene and lamented over the "deplorable" and "horrid" situation of the country at that particular moment, citing the depreciating currency, disaffection of the army and internal fighting in Congress, while predicting "impending ruin" if things did not change soon. Biographer Nathaniel Philbrick
Nathaniel Philbrick (born June 11, 1956) is an American author of history, winner of the National Book Award, and a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize. His maritime history, ''In the Heart of the Sea: The Tragedy of the Whaleship Essex'', based on w ...
argues:
Secret communications
Early in May 1779, Arnold met with Philadelphia merchant Joseph Stansbury who then "went secretly to New York with a tender of rnold'sservices to Sir Henry Clinton."[ Randall (1990), pp. 456–457] Stansbury ignored instructions from Arnold to involve no one else in the plot, and he crossed the British lines and visited Jonathan Odell in New York. Odell was a Loyalist working with William Franklin
William Franklin (22 February 1730 – 17 November 1813) was an American-born attorney, soldier, politician, and colonial administrator. He was the acknowledged extra-marital son of Benjamin Franklin. William Franklin was the last colonial G ...
, the last colonial governor of New Jersey
New Jersey is a U.S. state, state located in both the Mid-Atlantic States, Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern United States, Northeastern regions of the United States. Located at the geographic hub of the urban area, heavily urbanized Northeas ...
and the son of Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin (April 17, 1790) was an American polymath: a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher and Political philosophy, political philosopher.#britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021 Among the m ...
. On May 10, Franklin introduced Stansbury to André, who had just been named the British spy chief.[ Randall (1990), p. 459] This was the beginning of a secret correspondence between Arnold and André, sometimes using Shippen as a willing intermediary, which culminated more than a year later with Arnold's change of sides.
André conferred with Clinton, who gave him broad authority to pursue Arnold's offer. André then drafted instructions to Stansbury and Arnold.[ Randall (1990), p. 463] This initial letter opened a discussion on the types of assistance and intelligence that Arnold might provide and included instructions for how to communicate in the future. Letters were to be passed through the women's circle that Arnold's wife was a part of, but only she would be aware that some letters contained instructions that were to be passed on to André, written in both code
In communications and information processing, code is a system of rules to convert information—such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture—into another form, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a communicati ...
and invisible ink
Invisible ink, also known as security ink or sympathetic ink, is a substance used for writing, which is invisible either on application or soon thereafter, and can later be made visible by some means, such as heat or ultraviolet light. Invisibl ...
, using Stansbury as the courier.[ Randall (1990), p. 464]
By July 1779, Arnold was providing the British with troop locations and strengths, as well as the locations of supply depots, all the while negotiating over compensation. At first, he asked for indemnification
In contract law, an indemnity is a contractual obligation of one party (the ''indemnitor'') to compensate the loss incurred by another party (the ''indemnitee'') due to the relevant acts of the indemnitor or any other party. The duty to indemni ...
of his losses and £10,000 (), an amount that Congress had given Charles Lee for his services in the Continental Army.[ Randall (1990), p. 474] Clinton was pursuing a campaign to gain control of the Hudson River Valley, and was interested in plans and information on the defenses of West Point
The United States Military Academy (USMA), commonly known as West Point, is a United States service academies, United States service academy in West Point, New York that educates cadets for service as Officer_(armed_forces)#United_States, comm ...
and other installations on the Hudson River. He also began to insist on a face-to-face meeting, and suggested to Arnold that he pursue another high-level command.[ Randall (1990), p. 476] By October 1779, the negotiations had ground to a halt.[ Randall (1990), p. 477] Furthermore, revolutionary mobs were scouring Philadelphia for Loyalists, and Arnold and the Shippen family were being threatened. Arnold was rebuffed by Congress and by local authorities in requests for security details for himself and his in-laws.[ Randall (1990), pp. 482–483]
Court martial
Arnold's court martial on charges of profiteering began meeting on June 1, 1779, but it was delayed until December by Clinton's capture of Stony Point, New York, throwing the army into a flurry of activity to react.[ Brandt (1994), pp. 181–182] Several members on the panel of judges were ill-disposed toward Arnold over actions and disputes earlier in the war, yet Arnold was cleared of all but two minor charges on January 26, 1780.[ Randall (1990), pp. 486–492] Arnold worked over the next few months to publicize this fact; however, Washington published a formal rebuke of his behavior in early April, just one week after he had congratulated Arnold on the birth of his son, Edward Shippen Arnold, on March 19:[ Randall (1990), pp. 492–494]
Shortly after Washington's rebuke, a Congressional inquiry concluded that Arnold had failed to account fully for his expenditures incurred during the Quebec invasion, and that he owed the Congress some £1,000 () largely because he was unable to document them.[ Randall (1990), p. 497] Many of these documents had been lost during the retreat from Quebec. Angry and frustrated, Arnold resigned his military command of Philadelphia in late April.[ Randall (1990), pp. 497–499]
Offer to surrender West Point
Early in April 1780, Schuyler had approached Arnold with the possibility of giving him the command at West Point. Discussions had not borne fruit between Schuyler and Washington by early June. Arnold reopened the secret channels with the British, informing them of Schuyler's proposals and including Schuyler's assessment of conditions at West Point. He also provided information on a proposed French-American invasion of Quebec that was to go up the Connecticut River
The Connecticut River is the longest river in the New England region of the United States, flowing roughly southward for through four states. It rises 300 yards (270 m) south of the U.S. border with Quebec, Canada, and discharges into Long Isl ...
(Arnold did not know that this proposed invasion was a ruse intended to divert British resources). On June 16, Arnold inspected West Point while on his way home to Connecticut to take care of personal business, and he sent a highly detailed report through the secret channel.[ Randall (1990), pp. 503–504] When he reached Connecticut, Arnold arranged to sell his home there and began transferring assets to London
London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
through intermediaries in New York. By early July he was back in Philadelphia, where he wrote another secret message to Clinton on July 7 which implied that his appointment to West Point was assured and that he might even provide a "drawing of the works ... by which you might take est Pointwithout loss."[ Randall (1990), pp. 506–507]
André returned victorious from the Siege of Charleston
The siege of Charleston was a major engagement and major British victory in the American Revolutionary War, fought in the environs of Charles Town (today Charleston), the capital of South Carolina, between March 29 and May 12, 1780. The British ...
on June 18, and both he and Clinton were immediately caught up in this news. Clinton was concerned that Washington's army and the French fleet would join in Rhode Island, and he again fixed on West Point as a strategic point to capture. André had spies and informers keeping track of Arnold to verify his movements. Excited by the prospects, Clinton informed his superiors of his intelligence coup but failed to respond to Arnold's July 7 letter.[ Randall (1990), pp. 505–508]
Arnold next wrote a series of letters to Clinton, even before he might have expected a response to the July 7 letter. In a July 11 letter, he complained that the British did not appear to trust him and threatened to break off negotiations unless progress was made. On July 12 he wrote again, making explicit the offer to surrender West Point, although his price rose to £20,000 () (in addition to indemnification for his losses), with a £1,000 () down payment
In accounting, a down payment (also called a deposit in British English) is an initial up-front partial payment for the purchase of expensive goods or services such as a car or a house. It is usually paid in cash or equivalent at the time of fin ...
to be delivered with the response. These letters were delivered by Samuel Wallis, another Philadelphia businessman who spied for the British, rather than by Stansbury.[ Randall (1990), pp. 508–509]
Command at West Point
On August 3, 1780, Arnold obtained command of West Point. On August 15, he received a coded letter from André with Clinton's final offer: £20,000 () and no indemnification for his losses. Neither side knew for some days that the other was in agreement with that offer, due to difficulties in getting the messages across the lines. Arnold's letters continued to detail Washington's troop movements and provide information about French reinforcements that were being organized. On August 25, Shippen finally delivered to him Clinton's agreement to the terms.[ Randall (1990), pp. 511–512]
Arnold's command at West Point also gave him authority over the entire American-controlled Hudson River, from Albany down to the British lines outside New York City
New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
. While en route to West Point, Arnold renewed an acquaintance with Joshua Hett Smith, who had spied for both sides and who owned a house near the western bank of the Hudson about fifteen miles south of West Point.[ Randall (1990), pp. 517–518]
Once Arnold established himself at West Point, he began systematically weakening its defenses and military strength. Needed repairs of the chain across the Hudson were never ordered. Troops were liberally distributed within Arnold's command area (but only minimally at West Point itself) or furnished to Washington on request. Arnold also peppered Washington with complaints about the lack of supplies, writing, "Everything is wanting." At the same time, he tried to drain West Point's supplies so that a siege would be more likely to succeed. His subordinates, some long-time associates, grumbled about Arnold's unnecessary distribution of supplies and eventually concluded that he was selling them on the black market
A black market is a Secrecy, clandestine Market (economics), market or series of transactions that has some aspect of illegality, or is not compliant with an institutional set of rules. If the rule defines the set of goods and services who ...
for personal gain.[ Randall (1990), pp. 522–523]
On August 30, Arnold sent a letter accepting Clinton's terms and proposing a meeting to André through yet another intermediary: William Heron, a member of the Connecticut Assembly whom he thought he could trust. In an ironic twist, Heron went into New York unaware of the significance of the letter and offered his own services to the British as a spy. He then took the letter back to Connecticut, suspicious of Arnold's actions, where he delivered it to the head of the Connecticut militia. General Samuel Holden Parsons laid it aside, seeing a letter written as a coded business discussion. Four days later, Arnold sent a coded letter with similar content into New York through the services of the wife of a prisoner of war
A prisoner of war (POW) is a person held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610.
Belligerents hold prisoners of war for a ...
.[ Randall (1990), pp. 524–526] Eventually, a meeting was set for September 11 near Dobbs Ferry. This meeting was thwarted when British gunboats in the river fired on Arnold's boat, not being informed of his impending arrival.[ Randall (1990), p. 533]
Plot exposed
Arnold and André finally met on September 21 at the Joshua Hett Smith House. On the morning of September 22, from their position at Teller's Point, two American rebels (under the command of Colonel James Livingston), John "Jack" Peterson and Moses Sherwood, fired on , the ship that was intended to carry André back to New York. This action did little damage besides giving the captain, Andrew Sutherland, a splinter in his nose—but the splinter prompted ''Vulture'' to retreat, forcing André to return to New York overland. Arnold wrote out passes for André so that he would be able to pass through the lines, and he also gave him plans for West Point.[ Lossing (1852), pp. 151–156]
André was captured near Tarrytown, New York
Tarrytown is a administrative divisions of New York#Village, village in the administrative divisions of New York#Town, town of Greenburgh, New York, Greenburgh in Westchester County, New York, Westchester County, New York (state), New York, Unit ...
, on Saturday, September 23, by three Westchester militiamen. They found the papers exposing the plot to capture West Point and passed them on to their superiors,[ Lossing (1852), pp. 187–189] but André convinced the unsuspecting Colonel John Jameson, to whom he was delivered, to send him back to Arnold at West Point—but he never reached his destination. Major Benjamin Tallmadge, a member of the Continental Army's Culper Ring
The Culper Ring was a network of Espionage, spies active during the American Revolutionary War, organized by Major Benjamin Tallmadge and General George Washington in 1778 during the British New York and New Jersey campaign, occupation of New Yo ...
, insisted that Jameson order the prisoner to be intercepted and brought back. Jameson reluctantly recalled the lieutenant who had been delivering André into Arnold's custody, but he then sent the same lieutenant as a messenger to notify Arnold of André's arrest.
Arnold learned of André's capture on the morning of September 24 while waiting for Washington, with whom he was going to have breakfast at his headquarters in British Colonel Beverley Robinson's former summer house on the east bank of the Hudson.[ Brandt (1994), p. 220] Upon receiving Jameson's message, however, he learned that Jameson had sent Washington the papers which André was carrying. Arnold immediately hastened to the shore and ordered bargemen to row him downriver to where ''Vulture'' was anchored, fleeing on it to New York City.[ Lossing (1852), p. 159] From the ship, he wrote a letter to Washington[ Arnold to Washington, September 25, 1780] requesting that his wife be given safe passage to her family in Philadelphia—which Washington granted.
When Washington was presented with proof of Arnold's treason, he said, "Arnold has betrayed me. Whom can we trust now?" He remained calm when presented with the evidence, and was reportedly "the only one at West Point that day to act calmly." He did, however, investigate its extent, and suggested that he was willing to exchange André for Arnold during negotiations with Clinton concerning André's fate. Clinton refused this suggestion; after a military tribunal, André was hanged at Tappan, New York
Tappan ( ) is a Hamlet (New York), hamlet and census-designated place in the town of Orangetown, New York, United States. It is located northwest of Alpine, New Jersey, north of Northvale, New Jersey and Rockleigh, New Jersey, northeast of ...
, on October 2. Washington also sent men to infiltrate New York City in an attempt to capture Arnold, which included Sergeant Major John Champe. This plan very nearly succeeded, but Arnold changed living quarters prior to sailing for Virginia
Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States between the East Coast of the United States ...
in December and thus avoided capture.[ Lossing (1852), pp. 160, 197–210] He justified his actions in an open letter titled " To the Inhabitants of America," published in newspapers in October 1780.[ Carso (2006), p. 153] He also wrote in the letter to Washington requesting safe passage for Shippen: "Love to my country actuates my present conduct, however it may appear inconsistent to the world, who very seldom judge right of any man's actions."
Revolutionary War (British service)
Raids in Virginia and Connecticut colonies
The British gave Arnold a brigadier general's commission with an annual income of several hundred pounds, but they paid him only £6,315 () plus an annual pension
A pension (; ) is a fund into which amounts are paid regularly during an individual's working career, and from which periodic payments are made to support the person's retirement from work. A pension may be either a " defined benefit plan", wh ...
of £360 () for his defection because his plot had failed.[ Fahey] In December 1780, Arnold led a force of 1,600 troops into Virginia under orders from Clinton, where he captured Richmond by surprise and then went on a rampage through the colony, destroying supply houses, foundries and mills.[ Randall (1990), pp. 582–583] This activity brought out Virginia's militia led by Colonel Sampson Mathews, and Arnold eventually retreated to Portsmouth
Portsmouth ( ) is a port city status in the United Kingdom, city and unitary authority in Hampshire, England. Most of Portsmouth is located on Portsea Island, off the south coast of England in the Solent, making Portsmouth the only city in En ...
to be reinforced or to evacuate.
The pursuing American army included the Marquis de Lafayette
Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier de La Fayette, Marquis de La Fayette (; 6 September 1757 – 20 May 1834), known in the United States as Lafayette (), was a French military officer and politician who volunteered to join the Conti ...
, who was under orders from Washington to hang Arnold summarily if he was captured. British reinforcements arrived in late March led by Major General William Phillips, who served under Burgoyne at Saratoga. Phillips led further raids across Virginia, including a defeat of Baron von Steuben at Petersburg, but he died of fever on May 12, 1781. Arnold commanded the army only until May 20, when Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis
Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis (31 December 1738 – 5 October 1805) was a British Army officer, Whig politician and colonial administrator. In the United States and United Kingdom, he is best known as one of the leading Britis ...
arrived with the southern army and took over. One colonel wrote to Clinton concerning Arnold: "There are many officers who must wish some other general in command."[ Randall (1990)] Cornwallis ignored Arnold's advice to locate a permanent base away from the coast, advice that might have averted his surrender at Yorktown.
On his return to New York in June, Arnold made a variety of proposals for attacks on economic targets to force the Americans to end the war. Clinton was uninterested in most of his aggressive ideas but finally authorized him to raid the port of New London, Connecticut
New London is a seaport city and a port of entry on the northeast coast of the United States, located at the outlet of the Thames River (Connecticut), Thames River in New London County, Connecticut, which empties into Long Island Sound. The cit ...
. He led a force of more than 1,700 men which burned most of New London to the ground on September 4, causing damage estimated at $500,000.[ Randall (1990), pp. 585–591] They also attacked and captured Fort Griswold across the river in Groton, slaughtering the Americans after they surrendered following the Battle of Groton Heights—and all these deeds were done just a few miles down the Thames River
The River Thames ( ), known alternatively in parts as the River Isis, is a river that flows through southern England including London. At , it is the longest river entirely in England and the second-longest in the United Kingdom, after the ...
from Norwich, where Arnold grew up. However, British casualties were high; nearly one quarter of the force was killed or wounded, and Clinton declared that he could ill afford any more such victories.[ Randall (1990), p. 589]
British surrender and exile in England
Even before Cornwallis' surrender in October, Arnold had requested permission from Clinton to go to England to give Lord George Germain his thoughts on the war in person.[ Brandt (1994), p. 252] He renewed that request when he learned of the surrender, which Clinton then granted. On December 8, 1781, Arnold and his family left New York for England, Arnold never to set foot again in the United States.[ Brandt (1994), p. 253]
In London, Arnold aligned himself with the Tories, advising Germain and King George III
George III (George William Frederick; 4 June 173829 January 1820) was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland, Ireland from 25 October 1760 until his death in 1820. The Acts of Union 1800 unified Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain and ...
to renew the fight against the Americans. In the House of Commons
The House of Commons is the name for the elected lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral parliaments of the United Kingdom and Canada. In both of these countries, the Commons holds much more legislative power than the nominally upper house of ...
, Edmund Burke
Edmund Burke (; 12 January ew Style, NS1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish Politician, statesman, journalist, writer, literary critic, philosopher, and parliamentary orator who is regarded as the founder of the Social philosophy, soc ...
expressed the hope that the government would not put Arnold "at the head of a part of a British army" lest "the sentiments of true honour, which every British officer oldsdearer than life, should be afflicted." The anti-war Whigs had gained the upper hand in Parliament, and Germain was forced to resign, with the government of Lord North falling not long after.[ Brandt (1994), p. 255]
Arnold then applied to accompany Lieutenant General Guy Carleton, who was going to New York to replace Clinton as commander-in-chief, but the request went nowhere. Other attempts by Arnold to gain positions within the government or the British East India Company
The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company that was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to Indian Ocean trade, trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (South A ...
all failed over the next few years, and he was forced to subsist on the reduced pay of non-wartime service.[ Brandt (1994), pp. 257–259] His reputation also came under criticism in the British press, especially when compared to André, who was celebrated for his patriotism. One critic said that he was a "mean mercenary, who, having adopted a cause for the sake of plunder, quits it when convicted of that charge." George Johnstone turned Arnold down for a position in the East India Company and explained: "Although I am satisfied with the purity of your conduct, the generality do not think so. While this is the case, no power in this country could suddenly place you in the situation you aim at under the East India Company."[ Brandt (1994), p. 257]
To New Brunswick, then back to England
In 1785, Arnold and his son Richard moved to Saint John, New Brunswick
New Brunswick is a Provinces and Territories of Canada, province of Canada, bordering Quebec to the north, Nova Scotia to the east, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the northeast, the Bay of Fundy to the southeast, and the U.S. state of Maine to ...
, where they speculated in land and established a business doing trade with the West Indies. Arnold purchased large tracts of land in the Maugerville area, and acquired city lots in Saint John and Fredericton
Fredericton (; ) is the capital city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of New Brunswick. The city is situated in the west-central portion of the province along the Saint John River (Bay of Fundy), Saint John River, ...
. Delivery of his first ship, the ''Lord Sheffield'', was accompanied by accusations from the builder that Arnold had cheated him; Arnold replied that he had merely deducted the contractually agreed amount when the ship was delivered late.[ Brandt (1994), p. 261] After her first voyage, Arnold returned to London in 1786 to bring his family to Saint John. While there, he disentangled himself from a lawsuit over an unpaid debt that Shippen had been fighting while he was away, paying £900 () to settle a £12,000 () loan that he had taken while living in Philadelphia.[ Brandt (1994), p. 262]
The family moved to Saint John in 1787, where Arnold created an uproar with a series of bad business deals and petty lawsuits. The most serious of these was a slander
Defamation is a communication that injures a third party's reputation and causes a legally redressable injury. The precise legal definition of defamation varies from country to country. It is not necessarily restricted to making wikt:asserti ...
suit which Arnold won against a former business partner; and following this, townspeople burned him in effigy
An effigy is a sculptural representation, often life-size, of a specific person or a prototypical figure. The term is mostly used for the makeshift dummies used for symbolic punishment in political protests and for the figures burned in certain ...
in front of his house, as Shippen and the children watched.[ Brandt (1994), p. 263] The family left Saint John to return to London in December 1791.[ Brandt (1994), p. 264]
In July 1792, Arnold fought a bloodless duel with the Earl of Lauderdale after the Earl impugned his honor in the House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the lower house, the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster in London, England. One of the oldest ext ...
. With the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars
The French Revolutionary Wars () were a series of sweeping military conflicts resulting from the French Revolution that lasted from 1792 until 1802. They pitted French First Republic, France against Kingdom of Great Britain, Great Britain, Habsb ...
, Arnold outfitted a privateer
A privateer is a private person or vessel which engages in commerce raiding under a commission of war. Since robbery under arms was a common aspect of seaborne trade, until the early 19th century all merchant ships carried arms. A sovereign o ...
, while continuing to do business in the West Indies, even though the hostilities increased the risk. He was imprisoned by the French colonial authorities in Guadeloupe amid accusations of spying for the British, and narrowly eluded hanging by escaping to the blockading British fleet after bribing his guards. He helped organize militia forces in the British West Indies
The British West Indies (BWI) were the territories in the West Indies under British Empire, British rule, including Anguilla, the Cayman Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands, Montserrat, the British Virgin Islands, Bermuda, Antigua and Barb ...
, receiving praise from the landowners for his efforts on their behalf. Arnold hoped that this work would earn him wider respect and a new command; instead, it earned him and his sons a land-grant of in Upper Canada
The Province of Upper Canada () was a Province, part of The Canadas, British Canada established in 1791 by the Kingdom of Great Britain, to govern the central third of the lands in British North America, formerly part of the Province of Queb ...
, near present-day Renfrew, Ontario.[ Wilson (2001), p. 223]
Death and funeral
In January 1801, Arnold's health began to decline. He had suffered from gout since 1775,[ Brandt (1994), p. 42] and the condition attacked his unwounded leg to the point where he was unable to go to sea. The other leg ached constantly, and he walked only with a cane. Physicians diagnosed Arnold as having dropsy, and a visit to the countryside only temporarily improved his condition. He died after four days of delirium
Delirium (formerly acute confusional state, an ambiguous term that is now discouraged) is a specific state of acute confusion attributable to the direct physiological consequence of a medical condition, effects of a psychoactive substance, or ...
on June 14, 1801, at the age of 60.[ Lomask (1967)] Legend has it that, when he was on his deathbed, he said, "Let me die in this old uniform in which I fought my battles. May God forgive me for ever having put on another," but this story may be apocryphal. Arnold was buried at St. Mary's Church in Battersea
Battersea is a large district in southwest London, part of the London Borough of Wandsworth, England. It is centred southwest of Charing Cross and also extends along the south bank of the Thames Tideway. It includes the Battersea Park.
Hist ...
, England. As a result of a clerical error in the parish records, his remains were removed to an unmarked mass grave during church renovations a century later.[ Randall (1990), pp. 612–613] His funeral procession boasted "seven mourning coaches and four state carriages"; the funeral was without military honors.[ Randall (1990), p. 613]
Arnold left a small estate, reduced in size by his debts, which Shippen undertook to clear. Among his bequests were considerable gifts to one John Sage, perhaps an illegitimate son or grandson.
Legacy
Benedict Arnold became permanently synonymous with "traitor" soon after his betrayal became public. Biblical themes were often invoked; one 1794 textbook stated that "Satan
Satan, also known as the Devil, is a devilish entity in Abrahamic religions who seduces humans into sin (or falsehood). In Judaism, Satan is seen as an agent subservient to God, typically regarded as a metaphor for the '' yetzer hara'', or ' ...
entered into the heart of Benedict." Benjamin Franklin wrote that " Judas sold only one man, Arnold three millions," and Alexander Scammell described Arnold's actions as "black as hell."[ Carso (2006), p. 154] In his hometown of Norwich, Connecticut, someone scrawled "the traitor" next to Arnold's record of birth at city hall, and all of his family's gravestones have been destroyed except his mother's.
Arnold was aware of his reputation in his home country, and French statesman Talleyrand described meeting him in Falmouth, Cornwall
Falmouth ( ; ) is a town, civil parish and port on the River Fal on the south coast of Cornwall, England, United Kingdom.
Falmouth was founded in 1613 by the Killigrew family on a site near the existing Pendennis Castle. It developed as a po ...
, in 1794:
Talleyrand continued, "I must confess that I felt much pity for him, for which political puritans will perhaps blame me, but with which I do not reproach myself, for I witnessed his agony."
Early biographers attempted to describe Arnold's entire life in terms of treacherous or morally questionable behavior. The first major biography of his life was ''The Life and Treason of Benedict Arnold'', published in 1832 by historian Jared Sparks; it was particularly harsh in showing how Arnold's treacherous character was formed out of childhood experiences. George Canning Hill authored a series of moralistic biographies in the mid-19th century and began his 1865 biography of Arnold: "Benedict, the Traitor, was born…".[ Hill (1865), p. 10] Social historian Brian Carso notes that, as the 19th century progressed, the story of Arnold's betrayal was portrayed with near-mythical proportions as a part of the national history. It was invoked again as sectional conflicts increased in the years before the American Civil War
The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...
. Washington Irving
Washington Irving (April 3, 1783 – November 28, 1859) was an American short-story writer, essayist, biographer, historian, and diplomat of the early 19th century. He wrote the short stories "Rip Van Winkle" (1819) and "The Legend of Sleepy ...
used it as part of an argument against dismemberment of the union in his 1857 ''Life of George Washington'', pointing out that the unity of New England and the southern states which led to independence was made possible in part by holding West Point.[ Carso (2006), pp. 168–170] Jefferson Davis
Jefferson F. Davis (June 3, 1808December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as the only President of the Confederate States of America, president of the Confederate States from 1861 to 1865. He represented Mississippi in the Unite ...
and other southern secessionist leaders were unfavorably compared to Arnold, implicitly and explicitly likening the idea of secession to treason. ''Harper's Weekly
''Harper's Weekly, A Journal of Civilization'' was an American political magazine based in New York City. Published by Harper (publisher), Harper & Brothers from 1857 until 1916, it featured foreign and domestic news, fiction, essays on many su ...
'' published an article in 1861 describing Confederate leaders as "a few men directing this colossal treason, by whose side Benedict Arnold shines white as a saint."[ Carso (2006), p. 201]
Fictional invocations of Arnold's name carry strongly negative overtones. A moralistic children's tale entitled "The Cruel Boy" was widely circulated in the 19th century. It described a boy who stole eggs from birds' nests, pulled wings off insects and engaged in other sorts of wanton cruelty, who then grew up to become a traitor to his country. The boy is not identified until the end of the story, when his place of birth is given as Norwich, Connecticut, and his name is given as Benedict Arnold.[ Carso (2006), pp. 157–159] However, not all depictions of Arnold were so negative. Some theatrical treatments of the 19th century explored his duplicity, seeking to understand rather than demonize it.[ Carso (2006), pp. 170–171]
Canadian historians have treated Arnold as a relatively minor figure. His difficult time in New Brunswick led historians to summarize it as full of "controversy, resentment, and legal entanglements" and to conclude that he was disliked by both Americans and Loyalists living there. Historian Barry Wilson points out that Arnold's descendants established deep roots in Canada, becoming leading settlers in Upper Canada and Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province in Western Canada. It is bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, to the northeast by Nunavut, and to the south by the ...
. His descendants are spread across Canada, most of all those of John Sage, who adopted the Arnold surname.
Honors
The Boot Monument at Saratoga National Historical Park pays tribute to Arnold but does not mention his name. It was donated by Civil War General John Watts DePeyster, and its inscription reads: "In memory of the most brilliant soldier of the Continental army, who was desperately wounded on this spot, winning for his countrymen the decisive battle of the American Revolution, and for himself the rank of Major General."[ Saratoga National Historical Park – Tour Stop 7] The victory monument at Saratoga has four niches, three of which are occupied by statues of Generals Gates, Schuyler and Morgan. The fourth niche is pointedly empty.
There are plaques in an old cadet chapel in the United States Military Academy
The United States Military Academy (USMA), commonly known as West Point, is a United States service academies, United States service academy in West Point, New York that educates cadets for service as Officer_(armed_forces)#United_States, comm ...
at West Point commemorating all of the generals who served in the Revolution. One plaque bears only a rank and a date but no name: "major general… born 1740."[ Carso (2006), p. 155] Historical markers in Danvers, Massachusetts
Danvers is a New England town, town in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States, located on the Danvers River near the northeastern coast of Massachusetts. The suburb is a fairly short ride from Boston and is also in close proximity to the beach ...
, and Newburyport, Massachusetts
Newburyport is a coastal city in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States, northeast of Boston. The population was 18,289 at the 2020 United States census, 2020 census. A historic seaport with a vibrant tourism industry, Newburyport includes p ...
, commemorate Arnold's 1775 expedition to Quebec. There are also historical markers bearing his name at Wyman Lake Rest Area on US-201 north of Moscow, Maine, on the western bank of Lake Champlain, and two in Skowhegan, Maine.
The house where Arnold lived at 62 Gloucester Place in London bears a plaque describing him as an "American Patriot,"[ Blue and Green Plaques] in the sense that he "felt that what he was doing was in the interest of America." He was buried at St Mary's Church, Battersea, which has a commemorative stained glass window. The window's devices commingle the flags of the United States and the United Kingdom.
Marriages and children
Arnold had three sons with Margaret Mansfield:[ Randall (1990), p. 610][ The New England Register 1880, pp. 196–197]
* Benedict Arnold (1768–1795) (Captain, British Army in Jamaica)
* Richard Arnold (1769–1847) (Lieutenant, American Legion
The American Legion, commonly known as the Legion, is an Voluntary association, organization of United States, U.S. war veterans headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana. It comprises U.S. state, state, Territories of the United States, U.S. terr ...
cavalry)
* Henry Arnold (1772–1826) (Lieutenant, American Legion cavalry)
He had five children with Peggy Shippen:
* Edward Shippen Arnold (1780–1813) (Lieutenant, British Army in India; see Bengal Army)
* James Robertson Arnold (1781–1854) (Lieutenant General, Royal Engineers)
* George Arnold (1787–1828) (Lieutenant Colonel, 2nd (or 7th) Bengal Cavalry)
* Sophia Matilda Arnold (1785–1828)
* William Fitch Arnold (1794–1846) (Captain, 9th Queen's Royal Lancers)
Arnold left significant bequests in his will to John Sage (born 1786), who has been identified by some historians as a possible illegitimate son but may also have been a grandchild.
Published works
*
* ''A Proclamation to the Officers and Soldiers of the Continental Army'' (1780)
See also
* List of Freemasons
This page provides links to alphabetized lists of notable Freemasons. Freemasonry is a fraternal organisation which exists in a number of forms worldwide. Throughout history some members of the fraternity have made no secret of their involvem ...
* List of people from Connecticut
Notes
References
Works cited
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* Shy, John. "Arnold, Benedict", '' American National Biography'' (1999
short scholarly biography
* This book includes a reprint of Arnold's diary of his march.
*
* This book is about Arnold's time in Canada both before and after his treachery.
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Further reading
* ; Very old and outdated
* Burt, Daniel S. ''The Biography Book: A Reader's Guide To Nonfiction, Fictional, and Film Biographies of More Than 500 of the Most Fascinating Individuals of all Time'' (2001) pp. 12–13; annotates 26 books and 2 films.
* Case, Stephen and Mark Jacob. ''Treacherous Beauty: Peggy Shippen, The Woman Behind Benedict Arnold's Plot To Betray America'' (2012), popular biography
* Courtwright, Julie. "Whom Can We Trust Now? The Portrayal of Benedict Arnold in American History" ''Fairmont Folio: Journal of History'' (Wichita State University) v. 2 (1998
online
* ; studies numerous biographies and textbooks to trace American memory of him over the centuries
* Fine, Gary Alan
''Difficult reputations: Collective memories of the evil, inept, and controversial''
(University of Chicago Press, 2001) , chapter 1 on "Benedict Arnold and the Commemoration of Treason"
* Merrill, Jane, and John Endicott. ''The Late Years of Benedict Arnold: Fugitive, Smuggler, Mercenary, 1780–1801'' (McFarland, 2022).
* Nicolosi, Annie et al. ''Benedict Arnold: A Question of Honor.: The Idea Book for Educators, Spring 2003.'' (A&E Network, 2003
online
teaching ideas for secondary schools.
* Palmer, Dave Richard. ''George Washington and Benedict Arnold: A Tale of Two Patriots'' (2014); Popular dual biography.
* Philbrick, Nathaniel. ''Valiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution'' (2016).
* , a novel.
* Rubin Stuart, Nancy. ''Defiant brides: the untold story of two revolutionary-era women and the radical men they married'', (Boston: Beacon Press, 2013).
* Shalhope, Robert E. "Benedict Arnold as Hero." ''Reviews in American History'' 26.4 (1998): 668–673
excerpt
* Shy, John. "Arnold, Benedict (1741–1801)" ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'
Arnold, Benedict (1741–1801), army officer , Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
* ; The first major history, now entirely outdated
* Timmers, Christopher. "Judas of the revolution: America's most infamous traitor." ''TLS. Times Literary Supplement'', no. 6043, January 25, 2019, p. 28
u=anon~cb0f2d40&sid=googleScholar&xid=49a0729d online
* ; Old and outdated
* Trees, Andy. "Benedict Arnold, John André, and His Three Yeoman Captors: A Sentimental Journey or American Virtue Defined." ''Early American Literature'' 35.3 (2000): 246–273
online
* Van Doren, Carl. ''Secret History of the American Revolution: An Account of the Conspiracies of Benedict Arnold and Numerous Others Drawn from the Secret Service Papers of the British Headquarters in North America now for the first time examined and made public'' (1941
online free
* Wallace, Willard M. "Benedict Arnold: Traitorous Patriot." in George Athan Billias, ed., ''George Washington's Generals'' (1964): 163–193.
* Wallace, Willard M. ''Traitorous Hero The Life & Fortunes of Benedict Arnold'' (1954).
Primary sources
includes Arnold's 1779–80 letters to Clinton and André, proposing treason; from the Clements Library]
Links to primary sources about Benedict Arnold before and after his treason
External links
Benedict Arnold : Hero Betrayed
at AmericanRevolution.org
Benedict Arnold
at ''Encyclopædia Britannica
The is a general knowledge, general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, ...
''
*
*
Benedict Arnold
at George Washington's Mount Vernon
Benedict Arnold's Portraits
at varsitytutors.com
*
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